THE 

MECHANISM  OF  SPEECH 

BY 

ALEXANDER  GRAHAM  BELL 


*.l 


THE  MECHANISM  OF  SPEECH 


THE 
MECHANISM  OF  SPEECH 


LECTURES  DELIVERED  BEFORE  THE 
AMERICAN  ASSOCIATION  TO  PROMOTE 
THE  TEACHING  OF  SPEECH  TO  THE 
DEAF,  TO  WHICH  IS  APPENDED  A  PAPER 


VOWEL   THEORIES 

READ  BEFORE  THE  NATIONAL  ACADEMY  OF  ARTS  AND  SCIENCES 

ILLUSTRATED  WITH  CHARTS  AND  DIAGRAMS 

BY 

ALEXANDER  GRAHAM  BELL 


FIFTH  EDITION 


FUNK  &  WAGNALLS  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK.  AND  LONDON 
191  I 


COPYRIGHT,   1906,    BY 

ALEXANDER  GRAHAM  BELL 
Printed  in    U.  S.  A. 


CONTENTS. 


SYNOPSIS    xi-xv 

THE  THORAX  AND  LARYNX 1-16 

THE  PHARYNX  AND  MOUTH  IN  THEIR  RELATION  TO  SPEECH 17-31 

THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  EPIGLOTTIS  AND  SOFT  PALATE 32-34 

METHODS  OF  STUDYING  THE  MECHANISM  OF  SPEECH 34-50 

ALEXANDER  MELVILLE  BELL'S  SPEECH-SYMBOLS  AS  TAUGHT  TO  THE  DEAF    51-83 

DEFECTIVE  CONSONANTS  AND  HOW  TO  CORRECT  THEM 84-99 

DEFECTIVE  VOWELS,  GLIDES,  AND  DIPHTHONGS 100-1 12 

CONCLUDING  REMARKS  UPON  ARTICULATION  TEACHING 113-116 

APPENDIX  :  PAPER  ON  "VowEL  THEORIES" 1 17-129 


(vii) 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION. 


These  lectures  upon  the  Mechanism  of  Speech  were  delivered 
at  the  First  Summer  Meeting  of  the  American  Association  to  Pro- 
mote the  Teaching  of  Speech  to  the  Deaf,  before  an  audience  com- 
posed largely  of  persons  professionally  engaged  in  the  work  of 
teaching  speech  to  deaf  children. 

In  1906  these  lectures  were  for  the  first  time  collected  in  book 
form  and  reprinted  by  the  Association,  chiefly  for  the  use  of  its 
members,  but  enough  copies  were  struck  off  to  allow  of  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  work  to  the  general  public  in  the  hope  that  it  would  prove 
of  interest  to  a  larger  circle  of  readers.  This  hope  was  realized  and 
there  is  now  a  demand  for  another  edition. 

The  first  edition  was  printed  during  the  author's  absence  in 
Europe,  so  that  he  had  no  opportunity  of  revising  the  proofs ;  and, 
unfortunately,  in  using  the  unfamiliar  type  representing  Melville 
Bell's  Speech-Symbols,  the  printers  made  quite  a  number  of  typo- 
graphical mistakes.  In  this  second  edition  advantage  has  been  taken 
of  the  opportunity  to  correct  these  errors. 

When  the  lectures  were  originally  delivered  the  teachers  present 
were  encouraged  to  ask  questions  concerning  difficulties  experienced 
in  imparting  the  power  of  articulate  speech  to  deaf  children.  In 
this  volume  the  questions  and  answers  have  been  appended  to  the 
lectures,  in  the  hope  that  the  replies  may  be  of  assistance  to  other 
teachers  engaged  in  this  difficult  and  laborious  work. 

A  paper  by  the  author  upon  "Vowel  Theories"  is  also  appended, 
as  the  original  publication  is  difficult  to  find,  and  the  paper  itself  is 
out  of  print.  This  paper  was  read  before  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences^  April  15,  1879,  and  appeared  in  the  American  Journal  of 
Otology,  Vol.  i,  July,  1879.  The  experiments  described  were  made 
with  the  phonograph  in  the  form  in  which  it  was  given  to  the  world 
by  Edison — a  grooved  cylinder  covered  with  tinfoil ;  but  still  more 
conclusive  results  are  obtained  with  the  improved  phonographs  and 
graphophones  of  to-day. 

ALEXANDER  GRAHAM  BELL. 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C., 

May  24,  1907. 


SYNOPSIS. 


THE  THORAX  AND  LARYNX.  Page. 

Action  of  the  diaphragm  during  inspiration  and  expiration 1-2 

Forcible    expulsion    of   air    needed    for    speech    effected    by    the 

abdominal  muscles  2-3 

Chest  expansion  preferable  to  breathing  exercises 3-4 

Two  methods  of  varying  the  pitch  of  the  voice 6 

Dr.  Hewson's  suggestion  that  certain  vowels  are  formed  in  the 

Larynx  instead  of  the  mouth 7 

Surgical  case  apparently  favoring  Dr.  Hewson's  suggestion.  Dr. 
Moore's  patient  who  attempted  suicide  by  cutting  his  throat. 

Results  inconclusive 7-8 

Another  surgical  case  leading  to  the  opposite  conclusion.  A 
patient  of  Dr.  McKendrick  whose  Larynx  had  been  excised. 
The  Scotchman  at  the  Glasgow  University  with  a  harmonium 

reed  in  bis  throat  in  place  of  vocal  cords 8-9 

Still  another  surgical  case  indicating  that  vowels  are  formed  in  the 
mouth  and  not  the  Larynx.  The  case  of  Edward  Matthews 
upon  whom  Dr.  Moore  had  performed  the  operation  of  Trache- 
otomy. There  was  no  passage  of  air  from  the  lungs  into  the 
mouth,  and  yet  the  man  was  able  to  speak  intelligibly 9-11 

QUESTIONS. 

Is  it  possible  to  constrict  the  false  vocal  cords? 1 1 

Please  illustrate  the  development  of  ng 11-12 

Dr.  Bell  develops  non- vocal  r  from  th;  please  demonstrate 1 1-12 

How  would  you  develop  sh 11-12 

How  to  manipulate  the  tongue.     General  principles  involved 11-12 

What  would  you  do  with  a  pupil  who  gives  ng  too  far  back? 12 

Please  demonstrate  that  intelligible  speech  does  not  depend  upon 

perfect  vowel  positions 13-16 

In  a  whisper  are  the  vocal  cords  lax  or  tense  ? 16 

THE  PHARYNX  AND  MOUTH  IN  THEIR  RELATION  TO  SPEECH. 

Pitch,  loudness,  and  quality  of  the  voice  originate  in  three  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  vocal  apparatus.  Pitch  determined  by  vocal 
cords,  loudness  by  abdominal  muscles,  and  quality  by  the  parts 
above  the  vocal  cords 17-19 

Metallic  quality  caused  by  the  approximation  of  the  posterior 
pillars  of  the  soft  palate 19-21 

Guttural  quality  caused  by  approximating  the  base  of  the  tongue 
to  the  back  of  the  Pharynx 21 

Nasal  quality  caused  by  the  habitual  depression  of  the  soft  palate.  21-22 

(3d) 


xii  SYNOPSIS. 

Page 

Pleasant  quality  produced  by  elevation  of  soft  palate  and  expan- 
sion of  the  cavity  of  the  Pharynx.  Any  constriction  in  the 

pharyngeal  cavity  fatal  to  the  beauty  of  the  voice 23-24 

Vowel  quality  caused  by  the  shape  of  the  mouth  cavity;  variations 

of  shape  producing  corresponding  variations  of  vowel  quality..         24 
Why  changes  in  the  shape  of  the  cavities  of  the  Pharynx  and 

mouth  affect  the  quality  of  the  voice.    Resonance 24-25 

Resonance-tone  of  bottle  containing  water  can  be  lowered  in 
two  ways :  By  pouring  out  some  of  the  water  or  by  constrict- 
ing the  neck  of  the  bottle.  Application  to  the  cavities  of  the 

Pharynx  and  Mouth  25-26 

German  ch  should  be  treated  as  an  English  element  and  taught  to 
every  deaf  child  as  the  position  of  the  tongue  enters,  as  a  con- 
cealed position,  into  the  composition  of  three  English  elements 
which  are  usually  pronounced  in  a  very  defective  manner  by 
deaf  children,  viz.,  wh,  w,  and  oo.  Correct  position  for  German 
ch  readily  determined  by  the  resonance-pitch  of  the  mouth 

cavity    26-27 

Examples  of  sympathetic  vibration 27-28 

Sympathetic  vibration  a  result  of  inertia.     Illustrated  by  child's 

swing 29 

The  double  resonance  of  the  front  series  of  vowels 30 

The  synthesis  of  vowel  sounds  by  Helmholtz;  and  reference  to 
the  technical  paper  reprinted  in  the  Appendix  entitled,  "Vowel 
Theories"  31 

THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  EPIGLOTTIS  AND  SOFT  PALATE. 

During  the  act  of  swallowing,  the  closure  of  the  Epiglottis  against 
the  upper  part  of  the  Larynx,  prevents  food  from  passing  into 
the  lungs 33~34 

During  the  act  of  mastication  the  soft  palate  is  depressed  against 
the  back  of  the  tongue,  thus  shutting  in  the  partly  masticated 
food  within  the  mouth-cavity,  and  permitting  breathing  to  be 
carried  on  through  the  nasal  passages  without  any  danger  of 
inhaling  particles  of  food 33-34 

During  the  act  of  speech  the  position  of  the  soft  palate  directs 
the  current  of  air  from  the  lungs  through  the  mouth  alone, 
through  the  nose  alone,  or  through  both  passage  ways  simul- 
taneously    34 

METHODS  OF  STUDYING  THE  MECHANISM  OF  SPEECH. 

Effort  of  expiration  continuous  during  act  of  speech.  Bagpipe 
illustrations.  Intermittent  action  of  abdominal  muscles  apt  to 
become  habitual  34~35 

The  material  from  which  speech  is  made  is  a  store  of  compressed  air 
within  the  Thorax.  Escape  of  air  hindered  by  partial  closure  of 
the  glottis  so  that  emission  takes  place  only  through  fine  orifice.  35 

Effect  of  partially  plugging  a  water-faucet  with  the  finger.  Slow 
silent  stream  converted  into  rushing  torrent  which  spurts  out 


SYNOPSIS.  X1U 

Page 

with  great  noise.  In  the  production  of  noise  a  little  water  goes 
a  great  way,  and  noisy  spurt  can  be  sustained  for  long  period 
without  expenditure  of  much  fluid.  Application  to  the  case  of 
the  vocal  organs 35 

Speech  sounds  produced  by  partially  plugging  the  air  passage 
from  the  lungs.  Elements  of  speech  result  from  constrictions 
of  some  kind;  and  the  mechanism  of  speech  sounds  is  studied 
by  determining  the  location  and  nature  of  those  constrictions 
that  produce  and  modify  the  sounds 35 

In  describing  a  constriction  we  distinguish  three  associated  ele- 
ments, viz.,  a,  b,  two  organs  which  are  approximated  together, 
and  c,  the  condition  of  the  passage  way  between  them.  A 
constriction  is  usually  termed  "A  position  of  the  vocal  organs".  36 

When  two  or  more  positions  of  the  vocal  organs  are  simultane- 
ously assumed  the  effect  upon  the  ear  is  that  of  a  single  sound. 
Combinations  of  positions  produce  a  sound  of  different  quality 
from  that  produced  by  the  component  positions  assumed  sepa- 
rately. Chemical  simile.  Water  is  a  substance  of  different 
character  from  either  of  the  gases  of  which  it  is  formed;  and 
the  vowel  oo  is  a  sound  of  very  different  character  from  that 
of  any  of  its  elementary  positions 38-39 

Relations  of  speech  sounds  to  one  another  can  be  shown  by  means 
of  algebraical  equations.  Performing  an  equation  upon  the 
mouth  39 

Description  of  the  Speech-Symbols  devised  by  Alexander  Melville 
Bell.  The  fundamental  characters  represent  the  vocal  organs, 
and  the  various  kinds  of  appertures  employed  in  the  production 
of  speech  sounds.  These  are  combined  into  a  compound  char- 
acter to  express  a  position  of  the  vocal  organs.  Illustrations. .  .  40-46 

In  order  to  fit  the  symbols  for  use  as  a  phonetical  alphabet,  it 
became  necessary  that  associated  position  symbols  should  be 
combined  into  a  single  symbol  capable  of  use  like  a  letter  of 
the  alphabet.  Principles  of  abbreviation  employed  to  accomplish 
this  result — with  illustrations  46-49 

General  plan  of  using  the  symbols  in  the  instruction  of  the  deaf.  .         50 

MELVILLE  BELL'S  SPEECH-SYMBOLS  AS  TAUGHT  TO  THE  DEAF. 

Exhibition  of  seven  charts  illustrating  the  method  of  explaining 
the  meaning  of  the  speech-symbols  to  deaf  children  who  know 
no  language;  with  detailed  explanations  of  the  mode  of  pro- 
cedure  57-74 

QUESTIONS. 

Can  a  person  realize  by  any  feeling  the  muscular  condition  repre- 
sented by  the  symbols  ? 75 

Why  do  you  begin  with  lip  positions  instead  of  back  positions?. .         75 
Learning  to  speak  is  like  learning  to  shoot.     If  you  fail  to  hit  the 
bull's-eye  and  are  simply  told  that  you  have  failed,  you  get  no 


SYNOPSIS. 

Page 

information  that  will  help  to  make  you  a  good  marksman.  You 
must  know  where  your  bullet  struck  when  you  failed;  so  as  to 
see  the  relation  between  the  point  struck  and  the  point  you 
intended  to  hit.  Through  the  speech-symbols  the  deaf  child 
can  be  shown  what  he  did  with  his  mouth  when  he  failed  to 
produce  the  sound  intended,  and  the  relation  of  the  incorrect  to 
the  correct  position.  The  "NO-NO"  method,  besides  discourag- 
ing the  beginner,  fails  to  give  the  very  information  that  is  neces- 
sary to  his  progress 75~76 

What  is  accent?  Accented  syllable  longer  than  the  others  rather 
than  louder.  Illustrations 77 

May  not  syllables  containing  short  vowels  be  accented;  and  how 
can  you  prolong  the  syllable  if  the  vowel  is  short?  In  such 
cases  the  succeeding  consonant  is  prolonged  instead  of  the 
vowel.  Illlustration : — "To  be  or  NOT  to  be,  that  is  the  ques- 
tion." With  an  emphatic  "Not"  the  hiatus  caused  by  the  pro- 
longation of  the  shut  position  of  the  t  is  so  great  as  to  occasion 
a  perceptible  silence  in  the  midst  of  the  sentence 77-78 

Have  you  ever  thought  of  there  being  a  difference  of  pitch  in 
accent?  78 

Please  imitate  Helen  Keller's  voice 78 

How  would  you  teach  r  and  I? 78-79 

Adopt  the  rule  of  teaching  deaf  children  to  give  r,  I,  w,  and  y, 
without  voice  where  they  follow  non-vocal  consonants  in  the 
same  syllable  80 

Vocal  consonants  where  they  occur  as  final  elements  are  much 
improved  when  the  pupil  is  taught  to  finish  off  with  the  non- 
vocal  form  of  the  consonant  softly  uttered 80 

When  two  vocal  consonants  end  the  last  syllable  uttered,  it  is 
better  to  give  the  last  consonant  non-vocally 80 

How  do  you  get  pupils  to  give  long  e  easily? 80 

Please  demonstrate  the  teaching  of  tn  in  "cotton."  Exercises 
recommended  to  gain  control  of  the  soft  palate  in  uttering  such 
combinations  as  pm,  tn,  kng;  bm,  dn,  gng.  Also  nt,  nd,  tnt, 
dnd,  ndnd 81-83 

DEFECTIVE  CONSONANTS  AND  HOW  TO  CORRECT  THEM. 

Defects  of  the  shut  consonants,  p,  b,  m;  t,  d,  n;  k,  g,  ng.    Click 

defects  84-85 

Analysis  of  the  actions  of  the  vocal  organs  in  producing  the 

sound  of  a  kiss,  a  typical  click  sound 85-88 

A  click  results  from  opening  a  passage  way  into  a  cavity  in  which 

the  air  is  of  different  density  from  that  outside 88-89 

Suction  clicks,  and  expulsion  clicks 90-91 

Clicks  given  by  deaf  children  and  the  mode  of  correction 92-95 

Defective  combinations  of  p,  t,  and  k 95-97 

Corrections  of  the  defects  of  b,  d,  g,  m,  and  n.  Other  defects  of 

the  consonants  and  the  mode  of  correction 97-99 


SYNOPSIS.  XV 

Page 

DEFECTIVE  VOWELS,  GLIDES,  AND  DIPHTHONGS. 

Precise  vowel  quality  difficult  to  obtain  from  deaf  children.  The 
reason  why  this  is  so.  A  mirror  essential  in  correcting  vowel 

defects   100-102 

German  ch  forms  the  keynote  to  the  vowels 103 

Melville  Bell's  complete  vowel  scheme 103 

Table  of  English  vowels  showing  their  place  in  the  complete  vowel 

scheme    104 

Table  of  English  Vowels  as  taught  to  the  deaf 107 

Indefinite  murmur  of  the  voice  in  place  of  glide  r 108-109 

Ordinary  usage  tolerates  considerable  latitude  in  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  vowels.  Consonants,  and  small-aperture  vowels  in 
accented  syllables  must  be  accurately  given;  whereas  consider- 
able latitude  may  be  allowed  in  the  pronunciation  of  medium- 
aperture,  and  large-aperture  vowels ;  and  of  diphthongal  sounds 

wherever  they  occur  in 

Law  of  combination.  Successive  positions  of  the  vocal  organs 
do  not  simply  come  one  after  the  other  like  the  letters  on  a 
printed  page,  but  overlap.  A  position  is  retained  until  the 
mouth  is  in  position  for  the  next  element.  Principle  of  com- 
bination illustrated  by  the  syllables  bee,  dee,  and  gee.  The 
chief  difficulties  of  articulation  teaching  lie,  not  so  much  with 
the  elementary  sounds,  as  with  their  combinations  into  syllables. 
Thorough  comprehension  of  the  law  of  combination  by  both 
teachers  and  pupils  essential 112 

CONCLUDING  REMARKS  UPON  ARTICULATION  TEACHING. 
With  hearing  persons  the  elements  of  speech  constitute  the  final, 
not  the  initial,  exercises  of  articulation.    Word-method  of  teach- 
ing commended  as  more  natural  than  the  element-method  now 

in  use    1 13-1 14 

Practical  difficulties  in  the  way  of  applying  the  word-method  to 
the  deaf.  Suggestions  how  to  overcome  them.  That  method 
which  conforms  most  nearly  to  the  method  whereby  hearing 
children  acquire  speech  most  worthy  of  adoption  by  teachers 
of  the  deaf 114-115 

QUESTIONS. 

I  would  like  to  know  if  the  symbols  on  your  charts  represent  the 
elements  to  which  you  would  reduce  all  the  English  words 115 

I  notice  that  the  glide  r  is  omitted.  I  see  in  the  symbols  that  an 
indefinite  position  of  the  mouth  represents  voice  glide.  Is  it  the 
same  thing?  115-116 

When  we  give  a  deaf  child  the  indefinite  voice  mark  in  place  of 
glide  r,  we  obtain  from  him  a  sound  that  approximates  very 
closely  to  the  vernacular  effect.  This  plan  commended  by 
Miss  Yale  1 16 


THE  THORAX  AND   LARYNX. 


The  thorax  is  the  treasure-house  of  the  human  body, — a  verit- 
able strong-room,  girt  about  with  walls  of  bone  for  the  protection  of 
those  precious  organs  the  heart  and  lungs.  Let  us  imagine  our- 
selves for  a  moment  inside  the  thorax,  but  first,  with  your  permis- 
sion, let  us  empty  this  safe-deposit  vault  of  its  valuable  contents,  so 
that  we  may  have  space  for  exploration. 

We  find  ourselves  in  a  dark  room  or  vault  with  a  door  in  the 
roof.  The  floor  of  this  vault,  instead  of  being  firm  and  solid,  is  a 
soft  membrane  or  muscle, — not  flat  like  an  ordinary  floor,  but  dome- 
shaped  like  the  top  of  an  open  umbrella.  The  door  above  is  a  sort 
of  double  trap  door  set  at  an  angle  instead  of  being  flat,  and  open- 
ing upwards.  But  the  most  extraordinary  thing  about  this  room  is, 
that  the  floor  is  in  constant  motion,  heaving  upwards  and  down- 
wards in  regular  pulsations.  The  trap  doors  also  are  in  motion ; 
now  they  are  opened  so  that  a  glimpse  can  be  obtained  of  passages 
above,  and  now  they  come  together  with  a  quivering  motion,  open- 
ing and  shutting  with  great  rapidity,  and  causing  a  vibration  that 
makes  the  whole  thorax  tremble.  The  walls  also  are  in  motion,  the 
whole  room  alternately  increasing  and  diminishing  in  size. 

A  membranous  muscle  when  it  contracts  tends  to  become  flat 
and  tense;  and  many  of  us  have  had  the  idea  that  the  diaphragm  or 
dome-like  floor  of  the  thoracic  cavity,  in  contracting  becomes  flat 
like  the  head  of  a  drum.  This  idea  is  incorrect,  for  the  central 
portion  of  the  diaphragm  is  attached  above  by  ligaments  and  tis- 
sues to  the  bony  walls  of  the  thorax,  so  that  it  is  incapable  of 
descent.  The  circumference  or  edge,  also,  is  attached.  When, 
therefore,  the  diaphragm  contracts,  the  dome-like  floor  becomes 
somewhat  conical  in  shape.  As  I  picture  the  action  in  my  mind,  it 
is  as  though  the  dome  of  the  capitol  in  Washington  were  to  change 

into  a  cone  somewhat  like  a  blunt  church  spire. 

i 


When,  then,  the  diaphragm  contracts,  the  thoracic  floor 
becomes  tense  and  somewhat  conical  in  shape,  and  the  cavity 
of  the  thorax  is  thus  enlarged.  When  the  muscular  fibres  relax, 
the  tense  floor  becomes  loose  and  baggy,  resuming  its  dome-like 
shape,  and  the  space  within  the  thorax  then  becomes  less.  Con- 
tinuing our  explorations  we  find  that  the  front  or  chest  wall  of  the 
thorax  is  capable  of  slight  motion.  By  the  operation  of  cer- 
tain muscles,  the  ribs  can  be  raised  to  a  limited  degree,  so  as  tc 
cause  an  increase  in  the  circumference  of  the  chest,  and  thus  an 
expansion  of  the  thoracic  cavity.  In  animals  which  are  prostrate 
gravity  helps  the  expanding  action,  but  in  man,  on  account  of  his 
upright  position,  the  weight  of  the  bony  framework  renders  a  dis- 
tinct effort  necessary  in  order  to  elevate  the  chest  wall,  and  relaxa- 
tion of  the  muscles  tends  to  collapse  and  consequent  contraction  of 
the  thoracic  cavity. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  interior  capacity  of  the  thorax  can 
be  increased;  (i)  by  the  contraction  and  consequent  depression  of 
the  diaphragm;  (2)  by  the  elevation  of  the  front  wall  of  the  chest; 
or,  (3)  by  both  actions  performed  simultaneously.  When  the  interior 
capacity  is  increased,  the  air  within  the  thorax  expands  to  fill  the 
increased  space,  thus  becoming  rarified.  If  the  trap  doors  are  open 
the  denser  air  of  the  atmosphere  then  presses  its  way  into  the  thorax 
to  supply  the  partial  vacuum.  The  act  of  inspiration  is  completed 
when  the  air  pressures  within  and  without  the  thorax  are  equal.  If 
now  the  interior  capacity  of  the  thorax  be  diminished,  the  contained 
air  by  compression  becomes  denser  than  the  air  outside,  and  therefore 
tends  to  rush  out,  and  the  act  of  expiration  is  completed  when  the 
air  pressures  within  and  without  are  equal. 

Exhalation  can  be  effected;  (i)  by  relaxation  of  the  diaphragm 
which  rises  into  its  dome-like  shape ;  (2)  by  relaxation  of  the  mus- 
cles that  raise  the  ribs,  thus  allowing  the  front  wall  of  the  chest  to 
fall ;  or  (3)  by  both  processes  performed  simultaneously.  We  can- 
not, however,  by  any  of  these  means  produce  that  forcible  expul- 
sion of  air  that  is  requisite  for  speech,  for  relaxing  muscles  cannot 
exert  much  compressing  power.  What  we  need  for  speech  is  a 
forcible  compression  of  the  thoracic  cavity.  This  can  be  effected  by 
the  abdominal  or  waist  muscles.  The  contraction  of  these  muscles 
produces  a  compressing  effect  upon  the  viscera,  just  as  though  a 
rope  were  passed  around  the  waist  and  drawn  tightly.  This  com- 
pression forces  the  viscera  upwards  against  the  under  side  of 
the  diaphragm.  The  diaphragm  is  thus  pushed  up  like  a  piston 
into  the  thoracic  cavity,  compressing  the  contained  air.  In  this  way 


forcible  emission  of  air  is  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the  abdom- 
inal muscles,  and  these  are  the  muscles  that  we  employ  in  throwing 
out  the  voice.  For  example: — Prolong  a  vowel  sound,  suddenly 
increasing  the  force  into  a  shout,  a  number  of  times  in  succession, 
without  stopping  the  voice,  thus: — ah,  AH-ah-AH-ah-AH.  At 
every  shout  a  forcible  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles  can  be 
felt  by  the  hand,  and  the  front  wall  of  the  chest  is  thrown  upwards 
by  the  force  of  the  compressed  air  within  the  thorax,  pulsating  out- 
wards with  every  shout. 

Alternate  inspiration  and  expiration,  result  from  alternate  expan- 
sion and  contraction  of  the  thoracic  cavity.  This  can  be  effected  in 
two  ways. 

We  can  expand  the  cavity;  (i)  by  using  muscles  that  tend  to 
raise  the  ribs  and  cause  them  to  separate  from  one  another  slightly ; 
and  (2)  by  depressing  the  diaphragm. 

We  can  contract  the  cavity ;  (i)  by  allowing  the  chest  wall  to 
fall,  using  muscles  that  tend  to  bring  the  ribs  nearer  together;  and 
(2)  by  employing  the  abdominal  or  waist  muscles. 

Of  these  two  possible  modes  of  action,  it  will  be  seen  that  one 
involves  the  expenditure  of  less  energy  than  the  other.  It  is  less 
laborious  to  breathe  by  using  the  diaphragm  and  waist  muscles,  than 
by  moving  the  heavy  bony  framework  of  the  chest. 

When  the  diaphragm  contracts,  changing  from  the  dome-like 
to  the  conical  shape,  it  presses  downwards  upon  the  viscera,  thus 
causing  an  expansion  of  the  abdominal  cavity.  When  the  abdom- 
inal muscles  contract,  the  circumference  of  the  waist  diminishes. 
Thus  in  natural  breathing,  produced  by  the  alternate  action  of  the 
diaphragm  and  the  abdominal  muscles,  the  circumference  of  the 
waist  increases  during  inspiration,  and  diminishes  during  expiration. 

I  doubt  the  advisability  of  directing  a  pupil's  attention  to  these 
motions,  for  his  attempts  at  reproduction  are  often  attended  by 
ludicrous  results.  The  end  desired  would,  I  think,  be  better 
attained  by  directing  his  attention  to  the  chest,  and  not  to  the 
abdomen.  Get  the  pupil  to  expand  the  chest  and  keep  it  con- 
tinuously expanded  even  when  breathing  out.  If  the  bony  frame- 
work of  the  chest  is  kept  raised  and  fixed,  breathing  can  only  be 
performed  by  the  diaphragm  and  waist  muscles  ;  and,  as  the  pupil 
cannot  help  breathing,  nature  will  work  the  proper  muscles  without 
his  knowledge  or  will. 

This  effort  of  continuous  expansion  can  only  be  sustained  for  a 


few  minutes  at  a  time  without  fatigue  by  persons  unaccustomed  to 
the  exercise  ;  but  if  persevered  in  day  after  day  the  pupil  cap 
acquire  the  power  of  sustaining  the  chest  wall  continuously  during 
his  waking  hours.  The  exercise  usually  results  in  a  marked 
increase  in  the  capacity  of  the  chest.  I  have  known  of  instances 
where  the  circumference  of  the  chest  has  increased  between  two 
and  three  inches  after  a  month's  practice.  When  we  consider  that 
the  thorax  is  the  storehouse  of  the  kings,  it  is  obvious  that  this 
increased  capacity  will  be  beneficial  to  health.  Deaf  children, 
especially,  require  exercises  of  this  sort,  because  their  lungs  have 
not  been  as  fully  exercised  as  those  of  ordinary  children. 

I  consider  this  exercise  of  chest  expansion  as  more  beneficial 
to  pupils  than  the  breathing  exercises  that  are  usually  employed. 
Conscious  regulation  of  the  breath  is  to  be  deprecated  for  the 
following  reason :  the  primary  object  of  breathing  is  the  oxygen- 
ation  of  the  blood,  and  the  getting  rid  of  the  products  of  com- 
bustion in  the  lungs.  We  take  in  air  to  oxygenate  the  blood.  We 
exhale  to  get  rid  of  carbonic  acid  gas  and  aqueous  vapor.  The 
proper  time  to  take  in  breath  cannot  be  dictated  to  a  pupil  without 
interfering  with  the  primary  function  of  the  lungs.  Nature  gives 
the  signal  for  inspiration  when  the  blood  needs  oxygenation,  and 
when  we  attempt  to  regulate  the  breath  consciously  we  are  apt 
to  interfere  with  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Breathing  exercises 
should  be  stopped  the  moment  dizziness  is  produced,  for  that  is 
nature's  indication  of  a  disturbance  in  the  circulation. 

Inspiration  is  utilized  for  the  oxygenation  of  the  blood,  and 
expiration  alone  is  employed  in  the  production  of  speech.  Observe 
the  breathing  of  a  person  engaged  in  conversation  at  a  time  when 
he  is  unconscious  of  your  observation.  You  will  find  that  many 
words  are  articulated  between  each  inspiration.  The  time  taken 
for  inspiration  is  instantaneous,  whereas  the  duration  of  the  expira- 
tion is  very  long.  The  breath  comes  in  quickly,  and  goes  out 
slowly.  This  means  that  the  trap  doors  in  the  roof  of  the  thoracic 
cavity  are  opened  widely  during  inspiration,  and  closed  so  tightly 
during  the  act  of  speech,  that  only  a  fine  stream  of  air  can  escape 
from  the  thorax.  The  prime  requisite  for  speech  is  a  store  of  com- 
pressed air,  which  can  be  let  out  little  by  little,  as  wanted.  It  is 
obvious  that  the  air  would  escape  with  a  gush  unless  restrained. 
The  trap  doors  already  alluded  to.  constitute  the  chief  means  by 
which  a  too  rapid  escape  of  air  is  prevented.  These  trap  doors  are 
known  as  the  vocal  cords,  and  they  are  contained  in  the  larynx. 


THE    LARYNX. 

Fig.   i. 


Vertical  seftion  of  the  Larynx 
as  seen  from  behind. 


Vertical  seftion  of  the  Larynx 
as  seen  from  the  side. 


The  larynx  may  be  considered  as  the  guard-house  of  the  lungs, 
— admirably  adapted  to  protect  them  from  injury.  It  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  box,  surmounted  by  a  movable  lid,  called  the  epiglottis, 
which  closes  during  the  aft  of  swallowing,  to  prevent  food  from 


entering  the  lungs.  Inside  this  box  are  two  pairs  of  valves.  The 
lower  pair,  called  the  true  vocal  cords,  stand  with  their  free  edges 
upward,  and  the  upper  pair,  known  as  the  false  vocal  cords,  hang 
with  their  edges  downwards.  The  lower  pair  constitute  the  trap 
doors  to  which  I  have  before  alluded. 


The  specimens  of  the  larynx  which  have  been  placed  in  your 
hands  by  Dr.  Hewson,  will  have  shown  you  that  the  vocal  cords  do 
not  look  like  "cords"  or  strings  at  all — nor  perhaps  are  they  very 
suggestive  of  trap  doors — they  look  more  like  lips.  In  faft,  we  may 
consider  that  we  have  a  pair  of  lips  within  the  larynx  capable  of 
approximation,  with  various  degrees  of  tension. 

The  false  vocal  cords  also  resemble  lips,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  they  can  be  approximated  sufficiently  to  touch  one  another. 
If  the  lips  of  the  throat  are  shut  and  the  abdominal  muscles  are  con- 
tracted, the  air  compressed  within  the  thorax  tends  to  blow  the 
vocal  cords  apart.  The  muscular  tension  may  be  so  adjusted  as  to 
allow  the  vocal  cords  to  yield  sufficiently  to  permit  of  the  escape  of 
a  puff  of  air — the  aperture  closing  again  immediately  and  remain- 
ing closed  until  the  pressure  within  the  thorax  causes  the  escape  of 
another  puff.  In  this  way  a  regular  series  of  puffs  may  be  produced, 
the  alternate  opening  and  closing  of  the  glottis  constituting  vibra- 
tion of  the  vocal  cords.  The  frequency  of  the  vibration  depends 
upon  the  tension  of  the  vocal  cords.  The  more  tightly  they  are 
drawn,  the  more  rapid  will  be  the  vibration  produced. 

With  slow  vibrations,  distinct  puffs  of  air  can  be  heard,  pro- 
ducing a  sound  known  as  "throat  trill."  If  the  glottis  is  opened 
and  closed  more  than  thirty-two  times  in  one  second,  the  ear  fails 
to  distinguish  the  individual  puffs,  and  perceives  only  a  continuous 
effeft  of  a  musical  character  denominated  "voice."  The  pitch  of 
the  voice  rises  as  the  vibrations  become  more  rapid. 

There  are  two  ways  of  varying  the  pitch  of  the  voice,  just  as 
there  are  two  ways  of  changing  the  pitch  of  a  violin  string.  Ob- 
serve the  violinist  tuning  his  instrument.  He  turns  a  peg  at  the 
end,  thus  tightening  the  string.  At  each  increase  of  tension  the 
pitch  of  the  string  becomes  higher.  When,  however,  he  plays  the 
instrument,  the  pitch  is  varied  in  a  different  manner.  He  presses 
his  finger  upon  a  string  so  as  to  permit  only  a  portion  of  the  string 
to  vibrate,  instead  of  the  whole — and  the  pitch  becomes  higher. 
The  shorter  the  vibrating  portion,  the  higher  is  the  pitch  produced. 
In  this  case  the  tension  of  the  string  remains  uniform. 

In  a  similar  manner  variations  of  pitch  in  the  voice  may  be  pro- 
duced by  allowing  a  portion  only  of  the  vocal  cords  to  vibrate, 
instead  of  the  whole.  Observations  made  by  means  of  the  laryn- 
goscope, seem  to  indicate  that  the  variations  of  pitch,  in  what  is 
termed  the  "head  register"  of  the  voice,  are  produced  in  this 
manner;  whereas,  in  the  "chest  register, "  the  vocal  cords  vibrate 


as  wholes,  and  the  changes  of  pitch  are  produced  by  variations  of 
tension. 


Vocal  cords  vibrating  in  part.  Vocal  cords  vibrating  as  wholes.* 

Dr.  Hewson,  during  the  course  of  his  lecture,  gave  utterance  to 
rather  a  startling  remark.  If  I  understood  him  correctly,  he  ex- 
pressed the  opinion  that  some  of  the  vowel  sounds  are  formed  in 
the  larynx,  and  not  in  the  mouth.  I  cannot  agree  with  him  in  this 
opinion,  although  I  am  aware  that  he  can  quote  authorities  in  sup- 
port of  his  position.  For  example :  Dr.  E.  M.  Moore,  of  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  has  published  an  account  of  the  following  caseif  Some 
years  ago  Dr.  Moore  attended  a  man  who  had  attempted  suicide  by 
cutting  his  throat.  The  cut  was  immediately  above  the  thyroid  car- 
tilage, shaving  off  the  epiglottis  at  its  base.  The  wound  resulted  in 
an  oval  opening,  two  inches  long  by  three  quarters  of  an  inch  wide. 
The  man  was  able  to  talk  at  any  time  by  bending  his  head  forward 
and  temporarily  closing  the  opening.  When  the  head  was  thrown 
back  he  lost  the  power,  but  Dr.  Moore  noticed  that  under  such 
circumstances  he  could  pronounce  vowel  sounds  like  ah,  oh,  etc. 
The  doctor  was  surprised  at  the  clearness  and  distinctness  of  the 
vowel  effects,  for  the  sounds  seemed  to  emanate  from  the  yawning 
wound  in  the  throat,  and  not  from  the  mouth.  Struck  by  this  cir- 
cumstance, the  worthy  doctor  made  a  unique  experiment.  He 
introduced  into  the  wound  a  sheet  of  buckskin,  so  placed  as  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  any  air  passing  from  the  larynx  into  the 
mouth.  The  only  outlet  left  for  the  breath,  was  the  yawning 
wound.  He  then  asked  the  man  to  repeat  the  alphabet,  A,  B,  C,  etc. 
Dr.  Moore  found  that  under  these  circumstances,  certain  vowel 
sounds  could  be  distinguished,  and  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
these  vowels  were  formed  in  the  larynx,  and  not  in  the  mouth. 

This  conclusion  would  be  more  reliable  if  he  had  shown  that 
the  man  could  pronounce  these  vowels  with  his  mouth  shut.  Of 
course,  if  the  vowels  heard  were  really  produced  in  the  larynx 
alone,  the  closure  of  the  lips  would  have  made  no  difference  in  the 

*  These   cuts  are  reproduced  from  "  Voice,  Song,  and  Speech." 
|  See  Transactions  of  the  New  York  State  Medical  Society,  1873,  pp.  276-282. 


8 

effect.  Whereas,  if  the  ordinary  theory  is  correct,  that  vowel  qual- 
ity is  due  to  the  resonance  of  the  mouth  cavities,  then  the  closure  of 
the  mouth  passage,  at  both  ends,  would  have  been  fatal  to  the 
effect. 

1  understand  that  during  the  course  of  the  expeiiment,  the  man 
moved  his  mouth  as  though  he  were  speaking;  and  Dr.  Moore  simply 
took  precautions  to  prevent  the  passage  of  air  through  the  mouth. 
The  mouth  positions  for  the  vowels  were,  therefore,  assumed,  and 
the  mouth  would  then,  in  effect,  be  a  resonator,  tuned  to  the  vowel 
positions,  held  near  a  sounding  body — the  larynx.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances, resonance  effects  should  be  produced  without  the 
actual  passage  of  air  through  the  mouth,  just  as  an  ordinary  resona- 
tor, when  properly  tuned,  becomes  sonorous  when  held  near  a 
vibrating  tuning  fork. 

I  cannot  look  upon  the  experiment  as  by  any  means  conclusive; 
and  I  know  of  no  other  facts  to  support  the  hypothesis  that  any  of 
the  vowels  are  formed  in  the  larynx,  independently  of  the  mouth. 

A  number  of  years  ago  Dr.  McKendrick,  of  Glasgow  University, 
afforded  me  an  opportunity  of  examining  the  speech  of  a  man 
whose  larynx  had  been  excised.  The  patient  had  been  supplied 
with  an  artificial  substitute  for  the  larynx,  made,  I  think,  of  dentist's 
rubber.  As  there  were  no  vocal  cords,  the  man  could  only  speak 
in  a  sort  of  whisper,  which  was  barely  audible.  A  small  aperture 
had  been  left  in  the  front  part  of  the  rubber  substitute  into  which  the 
man  slipped  a  metal  reed,  taken  from  a  harmonium  or  small  parlor 
organ.  Upon  then  attempting  to  speak,  the  reed  was  thrown  into 
vibration  by  the  air  from  the  lungs,  and  a  good  sonorous  voice  resulted, 
— resembling  the  natural  voice  to  a  remarkable  and  startling  degree. 
The  patient  spoke  with  a  broad  Scotch  accent,  and  his  articulation 
was  simply  perfect.  Very  little  peculiarity  could  be  detected  in  the 
artificial  voice  excepting  that  it  was  monotonous  and  without  inflec- 
tion. The  speech  was  so  natural  in  quality  that  it  was  difficult  to 
realize  that  the  source  of  sound  was  a  metal  reed  inserted  into  the 
throat. 

The  man  was  a  machinist  by  trade,  and  he  employed  his  spare 
time  in  manufacturing  reeds  for  himself.  He  had  quite  an  assortment 
for  experimental  purposes,  and  he  let  me  hear  the  effect  of  reeds  of 
various  sizes  and  materials.  He  could  change  his  voice  from  bass  to 
tenor,  and  from  tenor  to  soprano  at  will,  by  employing  suitable 
reeds. 

The  point  to  which  1  would  direct  your  attention  is  this : — that  the 


vowels  were  all  perfectly  produced,  although  the  larynx  had  been 
excised. 

We  have  seen  that  a  metal  reed  can  be  used  in  place  of  the 
vocal  cords;  and  1  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  real  larynx,  if 
detached  from  the  body  and  operated  by  means  of  a  wind  chest  or 
organ  bellows,  would  produce  an  effecl;  more  resembling  the  sound 
of  a  beating  reed,  than  the  human  voice.  The  quality  or  "  timbre  "  of 
the  human  voice,  I  believe,  is  due  in  a  very  minor  degree  to  the 
vocal  cords,  and  in  a  much  greater  degree,  to  the  shapes  of  the 
passages  through  which  the  vibrating  column  of  air  is  passed. 
As  the  shape  of  the  passage  above  the  vocal  cords  controls  the  qual- 
ity or  timbre  of  the  voice,  we  may  be  sure  that  the  false  vocal  cords 
exert  some  influence  upon  the  quality  of  the  voice.,  especially  if  they 
are  capable  of  approximation,  a  point  I  am  unable  to  decide.  The 
ventricles,  also,  the  spaces  between  the  true  and  false  vocal  cords 
on  either  side,  should,  theoretically,  exert  an  influence  upon  the 
quality  of  the  voice,  for  they  constitute  two  small  resonance-cham- 
bers, situated  close  to  the  source  of  sound.  In  the  howling  monkey 
the  ventricles  are  expanded  into  pouches,  and  the  characteristic 
howl  produced  by  the  creature  is  due  to  the  resonance  of  air  in  those 
chambers. 

In  the  case  of  the  Scotchman  at  the  Glasgow  University,  the 
pitch  of  the  artificial  voice  produced  was  undoubtedly  due  to  the 
reed  employed,  but  the  quality  of  the  voice,  and  the  consonant  and 
vowel  effects  were  due  to  the  passages  above,  through  which  the 
vibrating  column  of  air  was  passed. 

I  have  already  directed  your  attention  to  the  case  reported  by 
Dr.  Moore  of  Rochester,  New  York,  in  which  he  claimed  that 
certain  vowels  are  formed  in  the  larynx  and  not  in  the  mouth.  Dr. 
Moore  directed  my  attention  to  the  case  of  another  patient  of  his 
which  seems  to  prove  the  converse  proposition.  *  Dr.  Moore  had 
performed  upon  this  man  the  operation  of  tracheotomy.  At  the 
time  I  saw  the  patient  he  had  for  over  twenty  years  been  dependent 
for  life  upon  air  supplied  through  a  silver  tube  inserted  in  the 
trachea.  The  glottis  had  become  completely  closed  and  -.TO  air 
could  be  forced  through  the  larynx  into  the  mouth.  The  strange 
feature  of  the  case  was  that  under  these  circumstances  the  man 
could  talk.  Of  course  the  speech  was  peculiar  on  account  of 

*Case   of  Edward    Matthews.      See    Transactions   of  the   New    York   State   Medical 
Society.  1872.  pp.  270-282. 


10 

the  absence  of  voice,  but  there  was  no  difficulty  in  understanding 
it.  In  this  case  the  air  which  was  moulded  into  speech  came  not 
from  the  lungs,  but  from  the  pharynx.  If  we  close  the  lips  tightly 
and  compress  the  air  in  the  mouth  and  make  an  effort  to  blow,  the 
pharynx  expands  under  the  pressure  of  the  confined  air,  just  as  a 
rubber  ball  would  expand  if  you  were  to  blow  into  it.  Upon 
opening  the  lips  the  contraction  of  the  pharynx  causes  a  sudden 
puff  of  air.  A  puff  of  air  of  this  character  can  be  produced  even 
though  the  glottis  is  closed.  By  long  practice  this  man  had 
acquired  such  expertness  in  the  use  of  the  muscles  about  the 
pharynx  that  he  could  produce  explosive  effects  of  this  kind  which 
could  be  distinctly  heard  at  a  distance.  When  he  spoke,  the  conso- 
nants were  formed  with  very  great  firmness,  and  the  removal  of  the 
consonant  position  resulted  in  a  puff  of  air  through  the  vowel  posi- 
tions assumed  by  the  mouth,  so  that  the  puff  had  vowel  quality 
sounding  like  a  whispered  vowel.  I  can  imitate  the  character  of  his 
speech  so  that  you  may  understand,  more  clearly  than  I  can  describe 
it,  the  nature  of  his  articulation. 

The  point  that  I  would  have  you  observe  is,  that  in  this  cas* 
vowel  effects  were  unmistakably  produced,  although  no  air  passed 
through  the  larynx  into  the  mouth. 

DR.  HEWSON:  Do  I  understand  you  to  say  that  this  individ- 
ual who  had  the  larynx  closed,  made  audible  speech  ? 

DR.  BELL:    Yes,  sir;  quite  audible  speech. 

DR.  HEWSON:  I  merely  wish  to  make  a  statement  from 
actual  surgical  experience  that,  in  cases  where  the  operation  of 
tracheotomy  has  been  performed,  it  is  impossible  to  make  any  sound 
under  such  circumstances,  unless  the  finger  is  placed  over  the  tube 
in  the  trachea.  Now,  of  course,  that  may  be  due  to  the  condition 
which  you  have  already  indicated ;  that  is,  that  the  speech  was  pro- 
duced by  this  individual  by  long  practice.  Now  it  is  possible  for 
people  to  speak  when  that  tube  is  closed,  even  though  the  principal 
part  of  the  vocal  apparatus  is  lined  with  diphtheric  membrane. 
There  is  some  sort  of  sound  made,  at  least,  but  there  is  no  audible 
speech.  The  remark  I  made  some  time  ago  about  the  vowel  sounds 
being  made  in  the  larynx,  I  will  amend  by  saying  that  of  course 
the  experiments  that  you  have  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing,  had 
not  come  to  the  notice  of  either  myself  or  the  gentlemen  who  have 
preceded  me,  in  making  statements  in  text-books  from  which  I  have 
quoted.  Your  experience,  I  believe,  is  very  unique;  because  I  have 
never  heard  of  any  one  who  had  been  able  to  see  the  experiments. 


II 

made  as  you  have  detailed  them  to-day.  With  reference  to  the 
closure  of  the  uppei  part  of  the  vocal  apparatus  by  diphtheric  mem- 
brane, and  the  introduction  of  a  tube  into  the  trachea ;  I  may  say 
that  in  order  that  any  sound  may  be  produced  at  all,  the  trachea! 
tube  must  be  closed.  Now,  if  the  parts  above,  are  almost  closed 
by  the  diphtheric  membrane,  no  sound  is  produced.  However,  I 
can  readily  see,  from  a  knowledge  of  the  muscular  tissue  surround- 
ing the  parts,  that  such  sounds  could  be  produced  as  you  have 
detailed  in  this  individual. 

DR.  BELL:  In  the  case  of  this  individual  I  have  just  men- 
tioned, no  air  could  pass  up  into  the  mouth,  under  any  circum- 
stances. The  aperture  in  the  windpipe  remained  open,  and,  all 
the  time  he  was  speaking,  air  gushed  out  of  the  tube  in  his  throat, 
forming  a  whistling  accompaniment  to  his  speech. 


Miss  YALE:  Dr.  Bell,  I  have  a  number  of  questions  here  for 
you  to  answer. 

DR.  BELL:  The  first  question  is:  "Is  it  possible  to  constrict 
the  false  vocal  cords?"  I  think  that  Dr.  Hewson  will  be  more 
competent  than  I  am  to  answer  that  question. 

DR.  HEWSON:  I  cannot  conceive  of  any  muscular  fibres  con- 
stricting the  ventricular  bands,  or  false  vocal  cords. 

MR.  CROUTER:     How  was  it  with  the  Scotchman,   Dr.  Bell? 

DR.  BELL:  There  were  no  vocal  cords  in  the  case  of  the 
Scotchman,  the  vocal  cords  were  represented  by  a  harmonium  reed. 

I  hardly  know  how  to  commence  on  the  stream  of  questions 
you  have  set  for  me.  They  appear  to  be  of  very  great  impor- 
tance, and  I  should  be  very  glad  if  I  can  be  of  any  assistance  to 
teachers  here  in  answering  them.  I  may,  perhaps,  group  them  so 
as  to  answer  two  or  three  at  one  time. 

(1)  "  Please  illustrate  the  development  of  ng." 

(2)  "Dr.   Bell  develops  non- vocal  r  from  th;  please  demon- 
strate." 

(3)  "How  would  you  develop  sh?" 

I  will  take  up  these  in  one  group.  In  difficult  cases  you  will 
find  manipulation  of  the  tongue  of  great  assistance:  and  I  think  that 
this  series  of  questions  may  be  answered  by  showing  you  how  to 
manipulate  the  tongue;  and  by  directing  your  attention  to  the 
nature  of  the  changes,  you  can  produce  by  manipulation.  You  can 
push  a  position  further  back,  and  you  can  enlarge  an  aperture  by 
manipulation ;  but  you  cannot  do  the  converse.  If,  then,  your  pu- 
pil cannot  pronounce  a  given  sound,  let  him  give  a  sound  of  similar 


12 

formation  but  further  forward  in  the  mouth ;  then  push  the  position 
back.  For  example;  take  the  cases  specified  in  the  questions,  (i.) 
The  pupil  cannot  pronounce  rig.  Now,  suppose  he  can  pronounce 
n  —  a  sound  of  similar  formation  but  formed  further  forward  in  the 
mouth.  Take  a  manipulator  (for  example;  a  paper  cutter),  and 
hold  it  in  the  pupil's  mouth  so  as  to  cover  the  top  or  front  part  of 
the  tongue.  Now  tell  the  pupil  to  say  n.  The  point  and  front  of 
the  tongue  being  fettered,  the  back  of  the  tongue  alone  is  free  to 
rise;  and  the  attempt  to  say  n  results  in  ng.  Now  give  the  pupil 
a  hand-mirror  and  tell  him  to  keep  his  tongue  still  when  you  with- 
draw the  manipulator.  In  most  cases  the  pupil  is  at  once  able  to 
pronounce  tig,  but  in  difficult  cases  it  is  advisable  to  get  him  to 
manipulate  his  tongue  for  himself,  watching  the  effect  in  a  hand- 
mirror. 

(2)  Your  pupil  cannot  pronounce  non-vocal  r,  but  is  able  to 
give  th.     Place  the  manipulator  under  the  tongue,  and  gradually 
lift  the  point  of  the  tongue,  while  the  pupil  tries  to  sound   th.     The 
sound  changes  to  a  hiss,  somewhat  like  s,  then  as  the  tongue  is 
raised  higher  the  sound  becomes  more  like  sh;  and  if  lifted  still 
higher,    it  becomes   non-vocal  r.     When  the  correct   position   is 
reached,    the   point  of  the  tongue  is  against  the  inner  part  of  the 
upper  gum— just  where  the  palate  commences  to  arch— with  an 
aperture  over  the  centre. 

(3)  The  pupil  cannot  pronounce  sh.     Let  him  pronounce  th. 
Place  the   manipulator  over  the  tip  of  the  tongue  and   push   the 
tongue  gradually  back.     The  sound  changes  first  to  s,  and  then  to 
sh.     If  pushed  too  far  back,  it  becomes yh  (h  in  the  word  hue) ;  and 
if  still  further  back,  the  German  ch  (back-centre  aperture). 

Another  question  is,  "  What  would  you  do  with  a  pupil  who 
gives  ng  too  far  back  ?  "  I  don't  quite  understand  this  question,  for 
you  can't  get  ng  too  far  back.  You  can  get  k  and  g  too  far  back, 
and  these  are  very  common  defects.  In  such  cases  the  back  of  the 
tongue  is  placed  against  the  back  of  the  pharynx  instead  of  against 
the  soft  palate,  but  such  a  position  cannot  produce  an  ng  sound,  be- 
cause the  depression  of  the  soft  palate  would  not  admit  air  into  the 
nasal  passages,  the  shut  position  being  below  the  soft  palate.  It  is 
very  difficult  to  correct  a  position  that  is  too  far  back.  You  can  push 
a  position  further  back,  but  you  can't  pull  it  forward!  I  think  the 
best  plan  is  to  start  anew.  Take  a  position  too  far  forward  in  the 
mouth,  and  push  the  tongue  backwards  to  the  correct  position.  For 
example;  where  you  have  k  too  far  back,  take  /;  let  the  pupil  try  to 


13 

pronounce  /,  while  you  hold  the  manipulator  over  the  tongue  so  as  to 
prevent  any  portion  from  rising,  excepting  the  back.  In  this  way 
you  will  be  sure  of  a  good  k,  if  the  pupil  does  not  know  what  you 
are  aiming  at.  By  vocalizing  the  k  you  get  g.  (Dr.  Bell  illustrated 
his  remarks  by  manipulating  the  tongue  of  a  deaf  pupil.) 

The  next  question  is,  "Please  demonstrate  that  intelligible 
speech  does  not  depend  upon  perfect  vowel  positions."  I  shall 
read  a  few  sentences  from  a  book,  substituting  for  each  vowel 
sound  a  mere  indefinite  murmur  of  voice.  You  observe  that  the 
articulation,  though,  of  course,  very  peculiar,  is  perfectly  intelli- 
gible.* We  may  learn  from  such  an  experiment  as  this,  that  con- 
sonants are  much  more  important  elements  than  vowels.  Intelli- 
gibility of  speech  mainly  depends  upon  the  correct  pronunciation 
of  consonants.  We  could  manage  to  get  along  very  well  with  only 
one  vowel  sound,  if  indefinite  enough,  and  yet  make  ourselves 
understood.  I  don't  mean  to  advise  you  to  teach  speech  of  this 
character  to  your  pupils,  but  many  of  you  may  be  encouraged  to 
know  that  very  imperfect  vowel  sounds  will  not  prevent  your  pupils 
from  being  understood  by  relatives  and  friends.  Consonants  are 
much  more  easily  acquired  than  vowels,  and  all  pupils  who  can 
pronounce  the  consonants  correctly  can  acquire  a  useful  articulation, 
even  though  they  murder  the  vowels.  That  is,  their  speech  will 
be  intelligible  to  hearing  people,  and  therefore  useful  as  a  means  of 
communication,  even  though  it  may  not  be  very  pleasant  to  hear. 
Too  much  effort,  I  think,  is  made  to  impart  a  niceness  of  pro- 
nunciation that  is  not  appreciated  by  the  outside  world. 

When  I  first  entered  upon  the  work  of  articulation  teaching,  I 
was  very  proud  of  the  pronunciation  of  some  of  my  congenitally 
deaf  pupils.  They  had  been  drilled  upon  the  elements  and  were 
able  to  pronounce  words  and  sentences  written  in  Visible  Speech 
with  absolute  correctness,  slowly,  it  is  true,  but  with  perfect  ele- 
mentary sounds.  To  my  great  mortification,  however,  I  found  that 

*  Read  the  following  passage  aloud,  giving  an  indefinite  murmur  of  the  voice  for 
each  dash,  and  the  passage  will  be  intelligible: — 

-  p-nt-d    t-    th-    c-t    -nd    th-n    t-    -ts    n-m    -nd    -nd-v-rd    t-    m-k   h-m 
-n-rst-nd    th-     m-n-ng    -v    th-     r-t-ng    -     -Is-    t-t    h-m    t-    sp-1    th-   w-rd    -n 
h-s    f-ngg-rs.      -v-th-ng     th-t     h-     d-d     w-s     p-rf-rmd    w-th    -     p-nd-r-s    s-rt 
-v    -mf-s-s    th-t    w-d    h-v    m-d    -    p-rs-n     -nf-m-ly-r     w-th     th-     d-f    s-p-z 
th-t    h-    n-    -1     -b-t    -t. — From  the  slniials  for  January,  1891,  p.  45. 

You  may  substitute  for  the  (-)  any  large  aperture  vpwe<,  such  as  u  in  up,  ef  in 
htr ,  o  in  on,  or  even  a  in  cat,  without  destroying  intelligibility. 


14 

visitors  generally  preferred  the  imperfect  gabble  of  some  semi-mute 
to  the  elocutionary  speech  I  had  labored  to  impart.  In  those  days 
I  had  a  very  poor  opinion  of  the  visitors,  but  I  have  since  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  I  myself  was  somewhat  at  fault.  My  aim  v/as 
wrong.  At  that  time  I  had  the  mistaken  idea  that  it  was  hardly 
worth  while  teaching  articulation  at  all,  unless  I  could  teach 
my  pupils  to  speak  well.  My  ear  was  sensitive  to  every  mispro- 
nunciation, and  I  was  constantly  correcting  my  pupils  for  errors 
that  were  not  even  noticed  by  visitors  to  the  school. 

Our  object  is  not  to  train  elocutionists,  but  to  help  deaf  children 
to  make  themselves  understood.  Intelligibility  is  of  far  greater  im- 
portance than  perfection.  By  all  means  let  us  get  as  perfect  a  pro- 
nunciation as  we  can,  but  do  not  let  us  spend  much  time  on  minor 
details  of  pronunciation  that  are  of  no  consequence  to  intelligi- 
bility. Let  us  aim,  not  to  get  the  speech  of  the  elocutionist,  but  the 
speech  of  the  people  among  -whom  the  children  live.  Judged  by  the 
standard  of  the  elocutionist,  how  many  of  the  hearing  people  of  the 
world  talk  well  ?  Very  few,  and  yet  their  speech  is  of  inestimable 
value  to  them  in  all  the  relations  of  life. 

Now,  I  hardly  think  it  worth  while  attempting  to  teach  the  mass 
of  the  deaf  to  talk  better  than  other  people.  Let  us  be  satisfied  with 
speech  like  that  which  we  ourselves  employ  without  troubling  our- 
selves about  niceties  of  articulation  that  might  be  all  very  well  in  an 
orator  or  public  speaker,  but  which  would  be  of  no  practical  benefit 
to  a  deaf  child  in  his  own  home.  Observe  your  own  utterance  and  the 
utterances  of  your  friends,  and  you  will  find  that  half  your  syllables 
are  pronounced  in  a  slipshod  fashion  that  would  make  an  articulation 
teacher  shudder  if  given  in  the  same  manner  by  a  deaf  child.  Take 
such  little  words  as  and  or  of.  Who  gives  them  their  proper 
dictionary  pronunciation  in  actual  speech  ?  No  one  but  the  deaf 
child.  We  pronounce  them  somewhat  as  though  they  were 
spelled  und  or  uv.  You  und  I ;  a  cup  u-v  tea.  No  one  says  thee 
boy,  Ann  apple,  or  eh  pear  in  conversation.  The  obscure  sound 
is  heard,  and  our  utterance  is  more  like  thu  boy,  un  apple,  u  pear. 
The  same  indefmiteness  of  vowel  sound  is  characteristic  of  all  our 
unaccented  syllables.  Why,  then,  need  we  be  particular  about  the 
pronunciation  of  the  unaccented  syllables  in  such  words  as,  com- 
fortable (kumf-t-ble),  lesson  (les-n),  silent  (sil-nt),  sentence  (sent- 
nce),  workman  (workm-n),  different  (dif-r-nt),  above  (-buv),  forgot 
(f-got),  etc.  Any  sort  of  indefinite  vowel  sound  will  pass  muster 
in  these  syllables  if  only  softly  uttered. 


15 

We  are  training  our  children  to  talk  to  ordinary  people,  not  to 
elocutionists.  There  are  certain  points  that  must  be  attended  to  in 
order  that  the  speech  may  be  satisfactory  to  ordinary  people ;  but  in 
regard  to  other  points,  great  latitude  may  be  allowed. 

Consonant  elements  and  the  vowels  in  accented  syllables  must 
be  properly  pronounced,  but  the  vowels  in  unaccented  syllables 
may  be  uttered  in  any  sort  of  indefinite  way  without  offending  the 
ordinary  ear.  Accent  and  rhythm,  I  think,  are  of  more  importance 
than  exact  pronunciation. 

In  Visible  Speech  the  voice  symbol  (i)  is  used  to  indicate  an  in- 
definite vowel  sound  like  er  in  the  word  her,  or  like  the  er  sound 
used  by  public  speakers  to  fill  up  gaps  in  their  sentences— when— er 
—they  are  not — er — very— er—er— sure— er— what  they  want  to  say. 
This  indefinite  vowel  sign  I  consider  a  perfect  God-send  to  the 
teacher  of  articulation,  enabling  him  to  get  rid  of  half  the  labor  of 
articulation  teaching.  In  spelling  phonetically  the  vast  majority  of 
the  vowel  sounds  in  the  unaccented  syllables  may  be  represented  by 
this  indefinite  voice  mark ;  and  it  may  also  be  substituted  every- 
where for  glide  r.  I  would  recommend  those  who  do  not  use 
Visible  Speech  to  use  a  dash. 

Ordinary  people  who  know  nothing  of  phonetics  or  elocution 
have  difficulty  in  understanding  slow  speech  composed  of  perfect 
elementary  sounds,  while  they  have  no  difficulty  in  comprehending 
an  imperfect  gabble  if  only  the  accent  and  ihythm  are  natural.  Too 
much  labor  is  bestowed  upon  unaccented  syllables.  Any  child  can 
give  an  indefinite  vowel  sound  that  may  be  combined  rapidly  with 
consonants.  I  have  seen  a  teacher  puzzling  herself  over  the  word 
comfortable.  The  first  syllable  gave  no  difficulty,  but  the  second 
syllable  was  not  pronounced  easily  by  the  child.  There  was  an 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  to  give  long  o,  as  in  pole,  followed 
by  a  consonant  r  of  an  exaggerated  kind,  and  the  teacher  was  try- 
ing to  get  the  pupil  to  substitute  aw  for  o.  With  regard  to  the  last 
syllable  the  teacher  was  puzzled  to  decide  whether  the  vowel  should 
have  the  sound  of  a  in  table,  a  in  cat,  or  a  in  ask.  Now  the  fact  is 
that  the  exact  vowel  sounds  in  the  unaccented  syllables  are  of  no 
earthly  consequence.  An  ordinary  ear  will  accept  any  sort  of  inde- 
finite sound  as  good  speech,  if  the  word  is  uttered  rapidly  with  due 
accent  on  the  first  syllable.  Even  an  elocutionist  would  not  ask  for 
a  consonant  r  in  the  second  syllable.  He  would  simply  demand  a 
gliding  of  the  tongue  towards  the  position  for  r;  but  ordinary  peo- 


16 

pie  do  not  give  an  r  of  any  sort  in  a  large  proportion  of  dases,  and 
it  is  certainly  the  case  that  glide  r  may  be  ignored  in  teaching  a  deaf 
;hild  and  taught  simply  as  voice,  without  any  ordinary  person  notic- 
ing any  peculiarity,  so  that  in  the  word  "comfortable"  the  second 
syllable  may  be  given  as,  /  followed  by  the  indefinite  voice  sign. 
(3i,  /-)  So  also  with  the  vowel  in  the  last  syllable.  The  whole 
word,  therefore,  might  be  written  Q]33iOi0CO  or  kumf-t-bl.  Pro- 
nounce the  first  syllable  with  due  deliberation  and  care,  and  give 
tbe  others  rapidly  and  carelessly,  and  it  will  be  satisfactory. 

DR.  WILLIAMS  :  With  indefinite  vowel  sounds,  is  there  not  a 
danger  of  carrying  that  too  far  so  as  to  get  indefmiteness  ? 

DR.  BELL:  You  don't  want  to  do  that  with  accented  vowels. 
However,  it  is  the  consonants  that  give  intelligibility  to  speech. 
You  may  give  every  vowel  indefinitely;  but  if  the  consonants  are 
definite,  you  get  intelligibility.  If  the  accented  vowels  are  given 
correctly,  the  unaccented  vowels  may  be  jumbled  up  somewhat. 

DR.  WILLIAMS  :  But  if  they  get  into  the  habit  of  giving  the 
vowel  sound  in  that  indefinite  way,  won't  they  carry  it  into  the 
accented  vowels  ? 

DR.  BELL  :  Well,  they  might,  just  as  we  do.  Of  course,  the 
better  articulation  you  can  get  the  better;  but  allow  me  to  say  that 
in  ninety-nine  out  of  a  hundred  persons  you  meet  in  ordinary 
society,  that  indefinite  sound  is  carried  into  a  great  many  accented 
syllables  and  also  into  nearly  all  the  unaccented  syllables. 

The  next  question  is,  "  In  a  whisper,  are  the  vocal  cords  lax 
or  tense  ?  "  In  the  case  of  a  whisper  there  is  a  constriction ;  there  is 
an  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  air  in  the  glottis.  The  vocal  cords 
are  not  adjusted  so  as  to  permit  of  a  definite  musical  vibration,  so 
that  the  obstruction  results  in  a  rustling  sound  that  we  term 
"  whisper." 

PROF.  BINNER  :     You  mean  constriction  of  the  vocal  cords  ? 

Dr.  BELL  :  Yes,  a  constriction  of  the  glottis  —  the  space  be- 
tween the  vocal  cords. 


THE  PHARYNX  AND   MOUTH   IN  THEIR 
RELATION  TO  SPEECH. 


In  my  last  lecture  I  told  you  about  a  man  with  a  harmonium 
reed  in  his  throat,  in  place  of  vocal  cords.  Now,  ordinarily,  there 
is  vast  deal  of  difference  between  the  sound  of  a  harmonium,  and 
the  sound  of  the  human  voice,  and  yet  in  this  case  the  reed  pro- 
duced the  effect  of  a  human  voice  when  the  man  spoke.  To  the 
ear,  therefore,  it  made  all  the  difference  in  the  world,  whether  the 
reed  was  vibrated  outside  or  inside  the  man's  throat.  Now,  we 
have  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  thorax  and  lungs  operated  in 
any  different  way  from  the  wind '  chest  of  a  harmonium.  They 
simply  supplied  air  to  set  the  reed  in  vibration.  The  difference  of 
effect,  therefore,  must  have  been  due  to  the  parts  above  the  reed. 
In  other  words,  the  pharynx,  mouth,  etc.,  were  the  agencies 
involved  in  changing  the  harmonium  effect  into  a  human  voice. 
Consider  for  a  moment,  the  nature  of  the  difference  between  the 
sound  of  a  harmonium  reed  and  a  sound  of  similar  pitch  sung  by 
the  voice.  The  same  note  may  be  played  upon  a  piano,  a  violin, 
a  flute,  or  a  trumpet,  and  yet  each  sound  has  an  individuality  of  its 
own.  We  can  tell  by  the  ear,  at  once,  which  instrument  is  used, 
although  all  the  notes  may  be  alike  in  pitch,  and  equally  loud.  The 
sounds  differ  from  one  another  in  "character,"  "quality"  or  "tim- 
bre," and  it  will  thus  be  understood  that  the  pharynx,  mouth,  etc., 
affect  the  quality  or  timbre  of  the  voice. 

We  can  recognize  that  every  sound  possesses  the  elements  of 
pitch,  loudness,  and  quality.  It  matters  not  whether  the  sound  be 
produced  by  the  human  voice,  by  a  musical  instrument,  by  the 
rustling  of  leaves,  or  by  a  knock  upon  the  door — it  has  a  certain 

17 


i8 

loudness,  a  certain  pitch  and  a  certain  character,  or  timbre  of  its 
own,  by  which  we  recognize  it  from  other  sounds  of  similar 
pitch  and  loudness. 

Now,  when  we  study  the  production  of  voice,  we  find  that 
these  three  characteristics  originate  principally  in  three  different 
parts  of  the  vocal  apparatus. 

(1)  The  pitch  of  the  voice  is  determined  by  the 

vocal  cords. 

(2)  The  loudness  by  the  abdominal  or  expira- 

tory muscles;  and 

(3)  The  quality  or  timbre  by  the  parts  above 

the  vocal  cords. 

1.  The  lips  of  the  glottis  open  and  close  with  great  rapidity, 
and  the  frequency  of  the  vibration  is  mainly  determined  by  the 
tension  of  the  vocal  cords. 

2.  Air  escapes  from  the  lungs  through  this  vibrating  glottis  in 
a  series  of  puffs,  and  the  force  of  emission  is  chiefly  determined  by 
the  action  of  the  abdominal  or  expiratory  muscles. 

3.  The  upper  part  of  the  larynx,  together  with  the  pharynx, 
nares,  and  mouth,  constitutes  a  passage-way,  or  tube,  of  variable 
size  and  shape,  through  which  the  vibrating  current  of  air  is  passed. 
It  is  here  that  the  voice  is  moulded,  so  to  speak,  on  its  way  to  the 
ear,  and  the  shape  of  the  passage-way  largely  determines  the 
quality  or  timbre  of  the  voice. 

You  can  produce  a  crude  voice-like  sound  by  the  vibration  of 
the  lips  of  the  mouth.  Press  your  lips  very  firmly  together  while 
you  blow  air  between  them,  so  as  to  cause  the  edges  to  vibrate. 
The  sound  produced  is  not  very  pleasant,  and  resembles  more  than 
anything  else  the  hum  of  a  bee,  or  the  buzz  of  an  imprisoned  fly. 
But  place  the  buzzing  lips  at  the  end  of  a  tube — for  example  a 
trumpet — and  at  once  the  quality  changes.  Out  come  the  clear 
ringing  tones  so  familiar  to  us  in  a  brass  band!  In  this  case  the 
source  of  sound  is  found  in  the  vibration  of  the  lips,  but  the  timbre 
or  metallic  quality  is  due  to  the  trumpet. 

In  a  somewhat  similar  manner  the  passage-way  or  tube, 
through  which  the  voice  is  passed,  affects  the  quality  of  the  sound 
produced  by  the  lips  of  the  throat;  and  if  we  could  decapitate  a 
singer  in  the  midst  of  a  song,  so  as  to  hear  the  sound  produced  by 
his  vocal  cords  alone,  I  fancy  we  should  find  as  great  a  change  in 


I? 

the  quality  of  the  voice,  as  we  do  in  the  sound  produced  by  the 
lips  when  the  trumpet  is  removed.  The  beauty  of  the  voice  would 
be  gone,  and  you  would  simply  have  a  reed-like  effect. 

In  the  case  of  the  trumpet,  the  character  of  the  tube  affects  not 
only  the  quality,  but  the  pitch  of  the  sound  produced.  For  example: 
If  you  lengthen  the  tube,  the  lips  vibrate  more  slowly,  and  the 
sound  becomes  lower  in  pitch.  In  the  instrument  of  speech,  how- 
ever, the  lips  of  the  glottis  are  so  admirably  adapted  for  independent 
vibration,  that  changes  in  the  passage-way  do  not  affect  their  rate 
of  vibration,  but  simply  change  the  quality  of  the  resulting  sound. 

A  number  of  years  ago  I  visited  a  large  school  for  the  deaf,  and 
taught  all  the  pupils  to  use  their  voices.  In  a  few  cases  the  effect 
was  decidedly  unpleasant,  the  voice  resembling  somewhat  the  cry 
of  a  peacock.  The  effect,  indeed,  was  so  unnatural  and  distressing 
to  the  ear  that  some  of  the  teachers  expressed  the  opinion  that  the 
vocal  cords  had  been  affected  by  the  disease  that  had  caused  deaf- 
ness. They  thought,  therefore,  that  it  would  hardly  be  worth 
while  attempting  to  teach  these  children  to  speak.  Knowing 
that  the  quality  of  the  voice  is  chiefly  determined  by  the  shape  of 
the  passage  through  which  it  is  passed,  I  did  not  consider  it 
necessary  to  assume  a  defect  in  the  vocal  cords,  but  rather  sought 
the  cause  of  the  peculiarity  in  some  constriction  of  the  passage-way 
higher  up  than  the  vocal  cords. 

I  was  careful  to  avoid  discouraging  the  pupils  by  any  expres- 
sion of  disapproval,  so  they  were  entirely  unconscious  of  the  fact 
that  their  voices  were  unpleasant.  They  had  no  hesitation,  there- 
fore, in  repeating  the  disagreeable  sound  as  often  as  I  desired ;  and 
I  encouraged  them  to  repeat  it  a  great  many  times,  so  that  I  might 
study  the  effect  and  become  familiar  with  the  sound.  I  then  found 
it  possible  to  imitate  the  effect  myself.  This  was  proof  positive 
that  the  existence  of  the  peculiarity  was  quite  consistent  with  the 
possession  of  perfect  vocal  organs.  Having  acquired  the  ability  to 
repeat  the  effect,  I  set  myself  to  work  to  find  out  what  I  did  with 
my  mouth  during  the  production  of  the  sound.  I  could  feel  a  con- 
striction somewhere  in  the  back  part  of  the  mouth,  and  therefore 
examined  my  vocal  organs  in  a  hand  mirror  while  I  depressed  the 
tongue  so  as  to  exhibit  the  whole  of  the  pharynx.  At  once  the 
cause  of  the  peculiarity  became  manifest.  The  muscles  constitut- 
ing the  side  walls  of  the  pharynx  were  seen  to  be  forcibly  con- 
tracted, and  they  were  approximated  so  closely  together  as  almost 
to  touch.  After  a  little  practice  I  found  myself  able  to  move  these 


20 

muscles  at  will  without  making  any  sound.  Then  I  tested  the 
effect  of  the  motion  upon  the  quality  of  the  voice.  When  the 
muscles  were  relaxed  and  the  cavity  of  the  pharynx  expanded  the 
quality  of  the  voice  was  good,  but  the  moment  the  side  walls  of 
the  pharynx  commenced  to  approach  one  another  (see  dotted  lines 
in  Fig.  2.),  the  character  of  the  voice  changed.  It  acquired  a  pecul- 


Fig.  2.* 

I.  Soft  palate.  2.  Uvula.  3,4.  Anterior  pillars  of  the  soft  palate.  5,6.  Pos- 
terior pillars  of  the  soft  palate.  7,8.  Tonsils.  9.  Tongue.  10.  Back  of  the  pharynx. 

The  posterior  pillars  of  the  soft  palate  (5,  6,)  are  capable  of  approximation,  as 
shown  by  dotted  lines. 

iar  metallic  ring,  somewhat  like  the  tone  of  a  brass  musical 
instrument.  The  effect  became  more  and  more  disagreeable  as 
the  side  walls  approached,  until  the  peculiarly  distressing  effect  was 
produced,  which  I  have  likened  to  the  cry  of  a  peacock.  Having 
gained  this  information  I  attempted  to  improve  the  voices  of  the 
children.  For  this  purpose  I  gave  them  hand  mirrors  and  taught 
them  to  depress  their  tongues  so  as  to  render  visible  the  soft  palate 
and  back  of  the  pharynx.  I  then  made  them  look  into  my  mouth 
while  I  silently  contracted  and  expanded  the  pharynx.  After  some 
practice  they  were  able  to  imitate  the  action. 

I  then  placed  my  hands  on  my  throat  while  I  repeated  the 
exercise  with  voice.  Their  first  attempts  at  reproduction  were 
failures;  the  moment  they  sounded  the  voice,  a  powerful  contraction 


*  Reproduced  from  "  Voice,  Song,  and  Speech." 


21 

of  the  muscles  about  the  pharynx  became  visible,  and  the  usual 
disagreeable  effect  was  produced.  By  means  of  the  mirror,  I 
directed  their  attention  to  the  construction,  and  told  them  to  expand 
the  pharynx,  as  they  had  done  before  when  they  made  no  noise. 
At  first  they  were  unable  to  relax  the  muscles  of  the  pharynx,  with- 
out stopping  the  voice,  but,  after  some  practice,  they  succeeded  in 
doing  this,  and  at  once  the  voice  became  natural  and  pleasant  in 
quality. 

The  cavity  of  the  pharynx  may  be  roughly  likened  to  a  room 
with  four  walls.  The  back  part  ot  the  tongue  constitutes  the  front 
wall  of  the  chamber,  and  opposite  to  it  is  the  back  wall  of  the 
pharynx.  The  side  walls  are  formed  by  muscles  that  extend  upwards 
to  the  soft  palate.  The  approximation  of  these  side  walls,  as  I  have 
already  explained,  imparts  to  the  voice  a  disagreeable  metallic 
quality.  The  front  and  back  walls,  too,  are  capable  of  approxima- 
tion, and  in  this  case,  also,  the  quality  of  the  voice  is  injuriously 
affected.  For  example:  The  tongue  may  be  held  so  far  back  in  the 
mouth  as  to  cause  the  base  of  the  tongue  to  come  almost  into 
contact  with  the  back  of  the  pharynx.  The  voice  then  acquires  a 
peculiar  " guttural  quality."  I  have  heard  this  kind  of  voice  pro- 
duced by  deaf  children,  but  it  is  more  common,  I  think,  among 
persons  who  hear.  It  is  rarely  heard  during  the  act  of  speech,  but 
many  persons  affect  this  guttural  quality  of  the  voice  when  they 
sing.  The  "metallic  quality  "  of  voice,  on  the  other  hand,  is  quite 
common  among  the  deaf,  although  it  is  rarely  so  marked  as  to  be 
painful  to  the  ear.  Many  hearing  persons  also  possess  it  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree, — especially  persons  who  use  their  voices  much  in 
the  open  air.  For  example,  the  rasping  voice  of  the  street  hawker 
is  of  this  description. 

Another  peculiarity  of  voice  very  common  among  the  deaf,  is 
"nasal  quality."  This  is  occasioned  by  the  habitual  depression  of 
the  soft  palate.  By  means  of  a  hand  mirror,  the  cause  may  be 
shown  to  a  deaf  child. 

The  soft  palate  is  capable  of  elevation  and  depression.  When 
it  is  raised  it  fits  closely  against  the  back  of  the  pharynx,  forming  a 
ceiling  to  the  pharyngeal  cavity.  When  it  is  depressed,  it  hangs 
down  like  a  curtain,  leaving  a  passage-way  behind  it,  which  leads 
into  the  nares  or  nasal  passages. 

I  would  recommend  every  teacher  of  articulation  to  learn  to 
control  the  movements  of  the  soft  palate  and  the  muscles  of  the 
pharynx,  so  as  to  be  able  to  exhibit  the  action  of  the  parts  to  pupils. 


22 

The  first  point  you  have  to  learn,  is  to  depress  the  tongue  so  as  to 
unveil  the  pharynx  and  soft  palate.  Many  persons  find  difficulty  in 
doing  this,  but  by  persistent  efforts  before  a  mirror,  all  can  acquire 
the  power.  Now  watch  the  soft  palate  while  you  breathe  gently, 
sometimes  through  the  mouth,  sometimes  through  the  nose.  At 
first  the  soft  palate  appears  to  move  about  in  a  most  mysterious  man- 
ner by  itself,  without  any  volition  on  your  part.  Now  it  goes  up, 
and  then  the  next  moment  you  see  it  hanging  loosely  down.  By 
watching  these  motions  in  a  mirror,  and  attempting  to  control  them, 
you  will  soon  find  yourself  able  to  elevate  or  depress  the  palate  at 
will.  Now  sound  the  voice  continuously,  and  observe  what  effect 
is  produced  upon  its  quality  by  the  movement.  You  will  notice 
that  the  moment  the  palate  falls,  the  voice  acquires  nasality,  and 
that  this  effect  disappears  when  the  palate  is  raised  into  contact  with 
the  back  of  the  pharynx. 

During  the  aft  of  speech,  the  soft  palate  is  raised  continuously, 
excepting  when  the  sound  of  m,  n,  and  ng,  are  uttered.  In  order 
to  correct  a  nasal  quality  of  voice,  therefore,  your  pupil  must  raise 
his  soft  palate.  The  question  arises,  however, — how  are  you  going 
to  make  him  do  it  ? 

Various  expedients  may  be  resorted  to,  such  as  the  common 
one  of  telling  him  to  blow  an  imaginary  feather  away  from  his 
mouth  while  he  speaks;  but  these  are  all  indirect  methods,  and  do 
not  touch  the  root  of  the  matter.  I  would  recommend  you  to  go  for 
the  soft  palate  itself,  directly,  with  a  hand-mirror.  Teach  your  pupil 
to  elevate  and  depress  it  at  will.  Direct  the  action  with  your  hand. 

When  you  raise  your  hand  let  him  raise  the  palate  (Cut  A),  and 
keep  it  elevated  till  you  give  the  signal  for  depression  (Cut  B). 


(Cut  A.) 


(Cut  B.)» 


*  These  cuts  are  reproduced  from  "  Voice,  Song,  and  Speech." 


Then  let  him  keep  it  depressed  without  motion,  till  you  direct  him 
to  raise  it.  Control  over  the  vocal  organs  is  gained  not  so  much  by 
moving  them  as  by  keeping  them  still.  Keep  the  soft  palate  de- 
pressed and  still  for  a  long  period  of  time,  and  then  raised  for  an 
equal  length  of  time.  Do  this  at  first  silently,  and  then  afterwards 
with  voice.  Elevate  and  depress  the  palate  without  stopping  the 
voice  but  retain  the  elevated  or  depressed  position  for  a  considerable 
period  of  time. 

When  your  pupil  can  do  this  without  looking  in  the  mirror  you 
may  usefully  vary  the  exercise  by  requiring  him  to  raise  or  depress 
the  palate  while  at  the  same  time  he  prolongs  a  vowel  sound.  (For 
example:  ah  or  ee  or  0.)  Then  let  him  rattle  off  a  series  of  vowels 
without  stopping  the  voice.  (For  example:  ah  ee  o  ee;  ah  ee  o  ee, 
etc.),  elevating  or  depressing  the  palate  as  you  direct.  As  the  ulti- 
mate object  to  be  gained  is  ability  to  retain  the  soft  palate  in  the 
elevated  position  continuously  during  speech,  there  should  be  no 
rapid  alternations  of  elevation  and  depression.  He  should  repeat 
the  series  of  vowels  many  times  in  succession  with  the  soft  palate 
raised,  and  many  times  with  it  depressed,  but  the  voice  should  not 
be  stopped  excepting  when  it  becomes  advisable  to  take  breath. 

The  uvula,  the  pendulous  extremity  of  the  soft  palate,  seems 
to  have  no  special  function  in  speech,  at  least  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, and  I  have  known  of  cases  where  it  has  been  excised 
without  interfering  with  articulation.  In  teaching  the  deaf,  however, 
the  uvula  may  be  found  of  use  as  an  index  to  the  pitch  of  the  voice. 
A  pupil  may,  perhaps,  be  made  conscious  of  changes  in  the  pitch 
of  the  voice,  by  directing  his  attention  to  changes  that  simultan- 
eously occur  in  the  length  of  the  uvula.  In  most  cases,  the  uvula 
hangs  loosely  down  during  the  production  of  low  tones  and  shrinks 
in  size  as  the  pitch  of  the  voice  is  raised,  (See  Cuts  A,  and  B.) 
When  the  pitch  is  very  high  the  uvula  shrinks  up  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  almost  disappears  (Cut  C,  page  24.)  While  this  rule  is  not 
invariable,  the  effect  is  so  commonly  produced,  as  at  least  to  be 
worthy  of  note. 

Every  change  in  the  shape  of  the  passage-way,  through  which 
the  voice  is  passed,  occasions  a  corresponding  change  in  the  quality 
of  the  voice,  and  I  have  pointed  out  the  causes  of  certain  disagree- 
able effects.  In  order  to  render  the  voice  sweet  and  pleasant  to  the 
ear,  it  is  necessary  that  the  soft  palate  should  be  raised  into  contact 
with  the  back  of  the  pharynx,  and  that  the  whole  cavity  of  the 


24 

pharynx  should  be  expanded,  so  that  the  passage-way  there  should 
be  free  and  unobstructed.  Any  constriction  in  the  pharynx  is  fatal 
to  the  beauty  of  the  voice. 

The  mouth  passage  also  affefts  the  voice,  imparting  to  it 
"vowel  quality,"  and  changes  in  the  shape  of  the  mouth-passage, 
produced  by  the  aftion  of  the  tongue  and  lips,  occasion  changes  of 
vowel  quality.  In  singing  different  vowel  sounds  the  voice  may  have 
the  same  pitch  and  loudness,  and  yet  each  vowel  remains  distinct  to 
the  ear.  Vowe4  differences,  therefore,  are  differences  in  the  quality  or 
timbre  of  the  voice ;  and  vowels  themselves  are  in  reality  qualities 
of  voice  to  which  we  have  given  specific  names,  and  which  we 
employ  as  elements  of  speech. 

I  do  not  propose  to-day  to  enter  into  any  detailed  description 
of  the  positions  assumed  by  the  tongue  and  lips,  during  the  produc- 
tion of  vowel  sounds,  as  most  of  you,  I  know,  are  familiar  with  the 


HI,1 
(Cut  C).» 

subject.  I  shall  rather  attempt  to  show  you  why  it  is  that  changes/ 
in  the  shape  of  the  cavities  of  the  mouth,  pharynx,  etc.,  occasion 
changes  in  the  quality  of  the  voice. 

When  we  prolong  a  vowel  sound  without  varying  the  pitch  of 
the  voice,  the  effecl:  produced  upon  the  ear  is  not  simply  that  of  a 
single  musical  sound,  but  of  a  chord  containing  a  number  of  musical 
tones  of  different  pitch.  One  of  these  tones  is  so  much  louder  than 
the  others  that  it  determines  the  apparent  pitch  of  the  whole  combi- 
nation. The  other  tones  are  so  feebly  produced,  that  it  takes  a 
skilled  ear  to  recognize  them  as  musical  effects  at  all;  and  the 
untrained  ear  simply  perceives  them  as  the  quality  or  timbre  of  the 
sound.  When  a  number  of  vowels  are  sung  successively  without 
varying  the  pitch  of  the  voice,  a  trained  ear  readily  perceives  that 


hThis  cut  is  reproduced  from  "  Voice,  Song,  and  Speech.' 


the  partial  tones  change  in  pitch  with  every  change  of  vowel  effect. 
The  loud  fundamental  is  due  to  the  vibration  of  the  vocal  cords,  and 
the  "  partial  tones"  are  caused  by  the  resonance  of  the  air  in  the 
cavities  of  the  mouth. 

"What  do  you  mean  by  'the  resonance  of  the  air  in  the  cavities 
of  the  mouth  ? '"  I  fancy  some  of  you  ask.     In  order  to  answer 
this  question  I  have  brought  a  few  empty  bottles  from  the  dining- 
room  table  and  from  the  kitchen  of  the  hotel.     Here  we  have  a  pep- 
per-pot, a  pickle-bottle,   a  mustard-pot,   a  vinegar-bottle  from  the 
cruet-stand,  and  a  few  other  bottles  of  different  shapes  and  sizes. 
Now  let  me  blow  into  the  mouth  of  one  of  these  bottles.     At  once 
you  hear  a  musical  tone  something  like  that  produced  by  an  organ 
pipe.    I  shall  now  blow  into  the  mouths  of  the  others.    You  observe 
that  each  bottle  has  a  resonance  tone  of  its  own.     In  some  cases  the 
pitch  is  high,  in  others  low.     Observe  the  pitch  of  the  bottle  I  hold 
in  my  hand.     I  shall  now  pour  in  a  little  water  so  as  to  reduce  the 
air  space  within.     The  bottle  produces  a  tone  of  higher  pitch  than 
it  did  before.     I  pour  in  a  little  more  water  and  again  the  pitch  rises. 
In  fact,  the  smaller  the  cavity  is  made  the  higher  does  the  pitch 
become.     Now  you  have  in  your  mouth  a  bottle-shaped  cavity,  and 
in  this  case  also  the  air  within   has  a  tendency  to  vibrate  at  a 
definite  rate  so  as  to  produce  a  musical  tone.     When  the  size  of 
the  cavity  is  reduced  by  elevating  the  tongue  and  bringing  it  further 
forward  in  the  mouth,  the  pitch  becomes  higher,  just  as  the  tone 
produced  by  the'bottle  rose  in  pitch  when  I  poured  in  water.     I  am 
afraid  you  would  hardly  like  me  to  demonstrate  the  truth  of  this 
statement  by  blowing  into  your  mouth  as  I  did  into  the  bottle !     If 
you  are  anxious  to  make  the  experiment  you  can  blow  into  your 
own  mouth  with  a  pair  of  bellows!     A  still  simpler  way,  however, 
of  testing  the  effect  is  to  blow  air  through  the  mouth  from  the 
lungs.     For  example:    whistle.     The  pitch  of  the  whistle  rises  as 
the  tongue  is  advanced  in  the  mouth. 

Let  me  direct  your  attention  once  more  to  the  bottle.  The  pitch 
rose  when  I  poured  in  water,  and  of  course  I  can  lower  it  again,  if 
I  choose,  by  pouring  out  the  water.  Instead  of  doing  this,  however, 
I  shall  change  the  pitch  in  another  way,  without  varying  the  size  of 
the  air  space  within.  While  1  blow  into  the  bottle  I  shall  gradually 
cover  its  mouth  with  my  hand.  The  tone,  you  observe,  falls  in 
pitch  as  the  orifice  is  reduced.  You  see  from  this  that  you  can  vary 
the  pitch;  (i)  by  varying  the  size  of  the  cavity,  and  (2)  by  chang- 
ing the  size  of  the  opening  into  it.  Allow  me  to  illustrate  these  two 
ways  with  my  mouth. 


26 

1.  I  shall  assume  the  position  of  the  Visible  Speech  symbol 
" Back  center-aperture "  (German  r&  in  the  word  nach)\  and  then 
glide  the  tongue  gradually  forward  to  the  position  for  "Front  centre- 
aperture  "  ( h  in  the  word  hue)  thus  reducing  the  size  of  the  cavity 
in  front  of  the  tongue.    The  pitch  of  the  sound  rises  as  the  tongue  is 
advanced  in  the  mouth. 

2.  I  shall  now  retain  tne  "Back  centre-aperture  position  (Ger- 
man ch)  and  gradually  contract  the  aperture  between  the  lips  until 
the  position  for  the  English  element  wh  is  reached.     The  pitch  falls 
as  the  labial  aperture  is  reduced. 

In  forming  German  ch  compressed  air  from  the  lungs  escapes 
through  a  very  small  aperture  between  the  back  of  the  tongue  and 
the  soft  palate,  occasioning  a  rustling  sound  in  the  mouth.  Although 
this  effect  constitutes  a  noise  rather  than  a  musical  tone,  you  have 
no  difficulty  in  recognizing  that  it  has  pitch. 

I  think  you  should  teach  all  your  pupils  to  produce  German 
ch,  because  this  position  of  the  tongue  enters  into  the  composi- 
tion of  three  English  elements  which  are  usually  pronounced  in  a 
very  detective  manner.  I  allude  to  the  sounds  of  wh,  w,  and  the 
vowel  oo  in  the  word  too.  In  these  cases  the  aperture  between  the 
lips  is  so  small  as  to  prevent  the  pupil  from  observing  the  position 
of  the  tongue,  which  position  is  essential  to  the  production  of  the 
sound.  He  imitates  the  labial  aperture  perfectly,  but  fails  to  give 
the  back  tongue  position,  and  hence  produces  only  a  crude  approxi- 
mation to  the  correct  sound. 

A  short  time  ago  I  visited  one  of  our  best  articulation  schools, 
and  went  through  all  the  classes  in  search  of  a  good  oo.  The  only 
children  who  gave  the  sound  correctly  were  semi-deaf,  or  had 
acquired  speech  by  ear.  There  is  really  little  difficulty  in  teaching 
the  sound  if  you  commence  with  the  lingual  element  by  itself,  and 
then  modify  it  by  rounding  the  lips.  Commence  with  German  ch. 
Round  the  lips  and  you  have  wh.  Add  voice  and  you  have  oo.  For 
all  practical  purposes  this  may  be  considered  identical  with  w. 
When  the  two  elements  are  in  juxtaposition  the  difference  is  readily 
perceived  by  the  pupil.  For  example  :  Pronounce  the  word  woo. 
The  labial  aperture  is  visibly  smaller  for  the  consonant  than  for  the 
vowel.  The  only  trouble  in  teaching  this  sound  arises  from  the  fact 
that  a  very  slight  change  in  the  lingual  position  destroys  the  oo 
effect.  If  the  tongue  is  only  a  little  too  far  forward  or  a  little  too 
far  back,  the  position  may  yield  a  very  respectable  German  ch,  and 
yet  fail  to  produce  a  good  oo  when  the  lips  are  rounded  and  the 


27 

voice  is  sounded.  In  such  cases  the  pitch  of  the  German  ch  will 
tell  you  the  nature  of  the  defect,  and  how  to  remedy  it.  If  the  pitch 
is  too  high  the  tongue  is  too  far  forward;  if  it  is  too  low  the  tongue 
is  too  far  back.  You  can  obtain  your  standard  for  comparison  in 
the  following  way  :  Pronounce  a  good  oo.  Convert  it  into  wh  by 
substituting  breath  for  voice,  and  then  force  your  lips  apart  so  as  to 
obtain  the  effect  of  the  lingual  position  alone.  Observe  the  pitch  of 
the  German  ch  thus  produced.  If  the  pitch  of  the  sound  produced 
by  your  pupil  is  higher  than  this,  direct  him  to  place  the  tongue 
further  back;  and  if  it  is  lower,  tell  him  to  bring  the  tongue  forward. 

The  pitch  of  the  mouth  can  be  brought  out  by  other  means 
than  by  blowing  air  into  or  through  the  cavity.  Resonance  is  caused 
whenever  a  sound  of  similar  pitch  is  produced  in  the  neighborhood. 
For  example :  Here  is  a  tuning  fork,  and  upon  the  table  is  a  bottle 
which  has  the  same  pitch.  I  hold  the  vibrating  prongs  of  the  fork 
over  the  mouth  of  the  bottle,  and  at  once  its  resonance  tone  is  loudly 
evoked.  Here  is  another  bottle,  but  it  remains  silent  when  the  fork 
is  ppolied.  Upon  blowing  into  it  you  perceive  that  the  pitch  is  too 
low.  Let  me  tune  it  by  pouring  in  water.  It  still  fails  to  respond — 
the  pitch  is  now  too  high.  Upon  pouring  out  a  little  water  the  bot- 
tle resounds,  but  very  faintly.  It  has  almost  the  same  pitch  as  the 
fork — but  is  still  a  little  too  high.  I  pour  out  a  few  more  drops,  and 
now  you  hear  the  full  and  loud  response  made  when  the  fork  is  ap- 
plied. Let  me  hold  the  fork  in  front  of  my  lips  while  my  mouth  is  in  the 
position  of  wh.  You  have  no  response,  because  the  proper  tone  of 
the  mouth  cavity  is  different  from  that  of  the  fork.  Upon  tuning 
the  cavity  by  shifting  the  position  of  the  tongue,  the  mouth  resounds 
as  the  bottle  did  a  few  mordents  ago. 

In  these  cases  you  have  resonance  produced  by  "sympathetic 
vibration."  If  you  have  in  the  same  neighborhood  tw©  bodies  that 
tend  to  vibrate  at  the  same  rate,  set  the  one  vibrating  and  the  other 
vibrates  of  itself — out  of  "sympathy"  as  it  were!  I  shall  show  you 
another  case.  Here  we  have  a  piano.  I  shall  depress  the  pedal  so 
as  to  release  all  the  strings,  and  then  sing  into  the  instrument  When 
I  stop  singing  you  will  observe  that  the  piano  echoes  my  voice. 
That  string  of  the  piano  that  had  the  same  pitch  as  my  voice  was 
set  sympathetically  into  vibration.  A  similar  effect  is  produced  in 
the  case  of  vibrations  which  are  too  slow  to  produce  the  sensation 
of  sound.  For  example:  If  two  clocks  having  pendulums  of 
similar  length  are  attached  to  the  same  wall  you  need  only  set 
one  of  them  going,  for  by  and  by  the  other  will  go  by  itself.  Of 


28 

course  we  cannot  suppose  that  the  pendulums  had  any  particular 
"sympathy  "  or  affection  one  for  the  other — or  that  the  string  of  the 
piano  experienced  any  emotion  at  the  sound  of  my  voice !  Every 
mechanical  effect  must  have  a  mechanical  cause — and  the  facts  of 
"  sympathetic  vibration  "  require  explanation.  Let  us  consider  the 
case  of  an  oscillation  slow  enough  to  be  followed  by  the  eye.  For 
example :  Imagine  one  of  your  pupils  to  be  upon  a  swing.  Stand 
behind  him  and  give  him  a  shove.  The  swing  moves  forward  a 
little  way  and  returns  upon  its  path.  It  oscillates  backwards  and 
forwards  at  a  definite  rate  for  a  long  time  before  it  comes  to  rest. 
Indeed,  were  it  not  for  friction  and  resistance  of  the  air  it  wouldn't 
stop  at  all.  Inertia  would  keep  it  going;  and  one  shove  would  be 
sufficient  to  set  it  vibrating  forever!  In  spite  of  the  resistance  of  air, 
the  effect  of  a  single  push  is  retained  through  many  vibrations.  If, 
then,  you  push  the  swing  again  at  the  proper  time,  the  motion  is 
increased.  Very  slight  efforts  of  the  hand  will  suffice  to  set  the 
swing  into  full  vibration  if  the  impulses  are  properly  timed  to  the 
movements  of  the  swing  so  as  always  to  come  during  the  forward 
motion  alone.  Under  such  circumstances  the  effect  of  each  succes- 
sive shove  is  added  to  that  of  the  last,  and  a  cumulative  effect  is 
produced.  The  amplitude  may  become  very  great  even  though  the 
individual  impulses  are  slight.  If  the  shove  is  given  at  the  wrong 
time,  that  is,  when  the  swing  is  moving  on  its  backward  path,  then 
every  impulse  tends  to  stop  the  vibration.  Each  push  retards  the 
motion  to  a  certain  extent,  and  a  series  of  very  slight  impulses  will 
bring  the  swing  to  rest.  For  example :  The  resistance  of  the  air 
stops  it  in  time  if  you  leave  it  alone.  The  air,  in  effect,  shoves  the 
swing  at  the  wrong  time  at  each  vibration.  Make  it  push  at  the 
right  time,  and  the  converse  effect  will  be  produced.  You  could 
set  the  swing  going,  for  instance,  by  puffs  from  a  pair  of  bellows! 

Now  the  strings  of  a  piano  are  in  effect  swings,  each  tuned  to 
vibrate  at  a  different  rate  from  the  other;  and  puffs  of  air  from  my 
lungs  set  them  going  when  I  sang  into  the  instrument.  At  each 
opening  of  the  glottis  a  puff  of  air  escaped  from  the  lungs,  and  all 
the  strings  of  the  piano  received  a  shove.  The  first  shove  started 
them  all  swinging,  but  the  second  caught  some  of  them  on  the 
return  path  and  stopped  their  motion.  The  motion  of  others  was 
retarded  later  on ;  but  that  string  which  had  the  same  rate  of  vibra- 
tion as  my  vocal  cords,  received  each  shove  always  at  the  right 
time,  and  was  thus  set  into  vigorous  vibration.  It  continued  sound- 
ing for  some  time  after  I  stopped  the  voice,  just  as  a  swing 


29 

continues  in  vibration  after  you  stop  pushing  it.  The  same  kind  of 
action  took  place  when  the  tuning  fork  was  held  over  a  bottle  of 
similar  pitch  to  its  own.  At  each  descent  of  the  prong  the  air  in 
the  bottle  received  a  shove ;  and  the  air  was  thus  set  into  vibration, 
as  you  set  a  swing  into  vibration  by  the  hand. 

A  similar  action  took  place  when  I  held  the  vibrating  fork  in 
front  of  my  lips.  At  first  no  sound  was  produced,  but  when  I 
shifted  the  position  of  the  tongue,  so  as  to  tune  the  mouth-cavity 
to  the  pitch  of  the  fork,  resonance  resulted,  and  you  all  heard  the 
effect.  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  Scotchman  with  the  artificial 
larynx  could  have  produced  the  same  effect;,  if  he  had  slipped  a 
tuning-fork  into  his  throat  in  place  of  the  harmonium  reed.  Imagine 
a  multitude  of  tuning-forks  of  different  pitch  to  be  massed  together 
in  front  of  the  mouth  and  all  simultaneously  to  be  set  in  vibration. 
It  should  then  be  possible,  by  shifting  the  position  of  the  tongue,  to 
reinforce  the  tone — now  of  one  fork,  now  of  another — at  will. 
Indeed  under  such  circumstances,  it  would  hardly  be  possible  to 
assume  a  position  of  the  mouth,  that  would  not  reinforce  some 
fork — at  least  in  a  greater  or  less  degree.  Imagine  the  mass  of  tun- 
ing-forks to  be  placed  in  the  Scotchman's  throat,  and  similar  effects 
would  result. 

Now  the  vocal  cords  like  the  hypothetical  forks,  produce  a 
number  of  feeble  tones  of  different  pitch ;  when  we  pronounce  a 
vowel  sound,  the  mouth  cavity  reinforces,  by  resonance,  that  "  par- 
tial tone  "  of  the  voice  which  is  nearest  in  pitch,  to  the  proper  tone 
of  the  cavity.  The  effect  produced  we  call  the  "  vowel  quality." 
The  loud  fundamental  tone  of  the  voice,  so  distracts  the  attention  of 
the  untrained  observer,  that  he  finds  difficulty  at  first  in  hearing  the 
resonance  tone  produced  by  the  mouth.  The  best  way  to  train  the 
ear  is  to  commence  by  observing  the  pitches  of  non-vocal  sounds. 
Then  listen  for  similar  effects  when  the  voice  is  sounded. 

If  you  whisper  the  vowels  ah,  aw,  oh,  do,  I  think  you  will  have 
little  difficulty  in  recognizing  the  fact  that  the  pitch  of  the  whisper 
falls  as  the  lips  are  approximated.  More  difficulty  will  be  experi- 
enced in  determining  the  relative  pitches  of  other  vowels.  For 
example:  whisper  the  vowels  in  the  words  eel,  ill,  ale,  ell  and 
shall.  The  pitch  changes  with  each  vowel,  but  how  does  it  change  ? 
I  attempted  to  determine  the  point  a  good  many  years  ago,  and 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  vowels  formed  a  descending  musical 
scaie,  ee  having  the  highest,  and  a  the  lowest  pitch.  To  my  surprise, 
however,  mv  father  was  unable  to  agree  with  me  in  this  result.  To 


30 

his  ear,  the  vowels  formed  an  ascending  series,  ee  having  the  lowest, 
and  d  the  highest  pitch.  The  fact  is,  we  were  both  right,  for  these 
vowels  have  a  double  resonance.  The  passage-way  for  the  voice 
extends  from  the  vocal  cords  to  the  lips,  and  if  you  constrict  it  at 
any  point,  you  divide  it  into  two  parts  forming  bottle-shaped  cavi- 
ties placed  neck  to  neck.  (See  diagram,  Fig.  3.)  There  is  a  cavity 
in  front  of  the  point  of  constriction  and  another  behind  it. 


In  forming  ee,  the  front  cavity  is  very  small,  and  the  pitch  con- 
sequently high;  but  the  back  cavity  is  low  in  pitch,  because  it 
possesses  an  extremely  narrow  neck  at  the  point  of  constriction. 
In  pronouncing  the  other  vowels  of  the  series  mentioned,  th'e  front 
cavity  increases  in  size,  and,  therefore,  falls  in  pitch ;  but  the  pitch 
of  the  back  cavtiy  rises  because  the  neck  at  the  point  of  constric- 
tion is  enlarged.  I  can  demonstrate  the  double  resonance  of  these 
vowels  by  a  simple  experiment.  I  shall  hold  the  side  of  a  lead 
pencil  against  my  cheek,  and  tap  it  forcibly  with  my  thumb  nail,  so 
as  to  agitate  the  air  in  the  front  cavity,  while  1  whisper  the  vowels 
ee,  i,  a,  8,  d.  You  perceive  at  once  a  descending  series  of  sounds, 
in  which  ee  is  the  highest,  and  d  the  lowest  pitch.  I  shall  now  hold 
the  pencil  against  my  throat  so  that  each  tap  may  agitate  the  air  in 
the  back  cavity.  Upon  whispering  the  same  vowels,  the  taps  pro- 
duce an  ascending  series,  ee  having  the  lowest  pitch  and  d  the 
highest.  The  effect  is  improved  by  closing  the  glottis  so  as  to  con- 
vert the  back  cavity  into  a  bottle  closed  at  the  bottom.  The  front 
cavity  also  yields  a  much  louder  effect  if  it  is  shut  off  completely 
from  the  back  cavity,  by  allowing  the  soft  palate  to  fall  into  contact 
with  the  back  of  the  tongue  (ng  position).  In  these  cases,  of 
course,  the  vowel  positions  must  be  silently  assumed.  When  we 
pronounce  these  vowels  aloud,  feeble  "partial  tones,"  due  to  the 


31 

resonance  of  the  air  in  the  back  and  front  cavities  of  the  mouth, 
mingle  with  the  tone  of  the  voice,  and  produce  in  our  ears  the 
sensation  of  "vowel  quality." 

Helmholtz  has  not  only  resolved  vowels,  by  a  process  of  analy- 
sis, into  their  constituent  musical  elements,  but  has  produced  vowel 
sounds  artificially  by  a  synthetical  process.  In  place  of  voice,  he 
caused  a  tuning  fork  to  vibrate  continuously  in  front  of  a  tuned 
bottle  or  "resonator,"  thus  producing  a  loud  musical  tone.  He  then 
selected  two  forks  having  the  pitches  of  the  partial  tones  he  had 
recognized  as  characteristic  of  the  vowel  ee.  One  was  very  high, 
and  the  other  low.  (They  represented,  indeed,  the  front  and  back 
cavities  of  the  mouth  in  forming  the  vowel.)  These  forks  were  then 
placed  in  front  of  bottles,  tuned  almost  but  not  quite  to  their  own 
pitch,  so  that  the  sounds  produced  should  be  very  faint.  The  simul- 
taneous vibration  of  the  three  forks  in  front  of  their  respective 
resonators,  or  bottles,  produced  one  loud  sound,  and  two  feeble 
partial  tones.  The  effect  upon  the  ear  was  that  of  the  vowel  ee. 

Those  of  you  who  desire  to  pursue  this  subject  further,  may 
consult  a  paper  of  mine  upon  "Vowel  Theories,"  which  was  read 
before  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  April  15,  1879,  and  was 
published  in  the  Journal  of  Otology,  Vol.  1,  July,  1879.  This  paper  is 
printed  as  an  Appendix  in  this  volume. 

Dr.  BELL:  Prof.  Gordon  has  received  a  communication  from 
Prof.  Samuel  Porter  of  Gallaudet  College,  Washington,  D.  C,  a  gen- 
tleman who  knows  about  as  much  about  the  mechanism  of  speech 
as  any  man  living.  I  am  sure  that  we  all  regret  Prof.  Porter's  ab- 
sence from  this  meeting,  and  shall  be  glad  to  hear  Prof.  Gordon  read 
the  communication  which  he  will  now  do: 

FARMINGTON,  CONN.,  June  30,  1891. 

MY  DEAR  FRIEND:  I  notice  that  Dr.  Bell  is  to  lecture  on  the  Functions  of  the  Phar- 
ynx in  Speech.  1  should  like  to  know  what  he  would  have  to  say  about  that.  My  idea 
is,  that  it  is  quite  common  to  misapprehend  by  regarding  the  pharynx  too  much  as  if 
absolutely  separated  from  the  mouth.  In  fad,  when  the  soft  palate  is  raised  in  non-nasal 
utterance,  the  pharynx  and  the  mouth  are  better  regarded  as  together  forming  a  single 
cavity.  There  is  no  line  of 'separation  across  the  tongue,  and  nothing  whatever  as  a  line 
of  demarcation,  except  the  posterior  pillars  of  the  fauces,  which  in  each  case  almost  lose 
themselves  in  the  walls  of  the  passage.  The  pharynx  comes  into  importance,  if  we  re- 
gard, as  I  do,  the  a  (ah)  vowel  as  made  with  the  place  of  constriction  against  the  back 
wall  of  the  pharynx,  thus  giving  this  vowel  a  place  to  the  rear  of  the  proper  "back 
vowels,"  aw,  o,  oo,  etc.,  which  have  the  place  of  constriction  in  the  soft  palate.  Bell 
might  symbolize  it  by  an  additional  turn  (  ).  This  relieves  Bell  and  Sweet  from  the 
vacillation  and  diversity  in  the  place  assigned  by  them  to  this  vowel.  The  pharynx  acts 
together  with  the  cheeks  and  the  soft  palate  in  producing,  by  their  elastic  reaction,  the 
explosion  of  a  p,  and,  without  the  cheeks,  of  a  t ,  and,  by  itself  alone,  of  a  A.  I  imagine 
also  that  the  pharynx  acts,  together  with  the  soft  palate,  as  a  cushion,  and  may  thus  be 
made  to  affeft  the  ring  of  the  voice  or  quality  of  tone,  giving  it  sometimes  softness,  and 
sometimes  sonority  in  the  "orotund"  quality,  etc. 

Yours  truly, 
(Signed)  SAMUEL  PORTER. 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  EPIGLOTTIS  AND 
SOFT  PALATE. 


The  instrument  of  speech  consists  essentially  of  a  collection  of 
tubes  or  passage-ways  connected  together  somewhat  as  shown  in 
the  following  crude  diagram,  which  I  have  found  of  assistance  in 
explaining  to  pupils  the  functions  of  the  epiglottis  and  soft  palate. 
( See  Fig.  4.) 


Fig.  4. 
Diagram  illustrating  the  action  of  the  epiglottis  ( k)  and  soft  palate  (n). 


=;.      Key  to  diagram,  Fig.  4. 

There  are  three  entrances  into  the  vocal  organs ;  a,  the  mouth, 
and  b,  c,  the  nostrils.  Following  these  passages  downwards  we 
find  they  unite  in  one  passage,  d,  the  pharynx.  Below  this  point 
the  passage-way  splits  up  into  two  tubes,  e,  f,  the  sesophagus  and 
the  windpipe.  The  windpipe,  f,  bifurcates  lower  down  into  the 
bronchial  tubes,  g,  h.  These  in  their  turn  split  up  into  multitudi- 
nous smaller  tubes,  ramifying  through  the  lungs.  The  sesophagus, 
e,  passes  downwards  between  the  bronchial  tubes,  g,  h,  through 
an  aperture  in  the  diaphragm,  i,  into  the  stomach. 

In  this  apparatus  we  find  two  valves  one,  k,  (the  epiglottis) 
hinged  at  1,  and  capable  of  shutting  against  m.  The  other,  n,  (the 
soft  palate),  hinged  at  o,  and  capable  of  shutting  against  p, 
and  q. 

These  valves  are  largely  for  the  protection  of  the  lungs.  We 
all  know  how  important  it  is  that  foreign  bodies  should  be  kept  out 
of  the  lungs.  The  New  York  doctor  who  recently  inhaled  a  cork 
has  died,  in  spite  of  all  that  science  could  do  to  aid  him.  Equally 
serious  results  might  follow  were  particles  of  food  to  find  their  way 
into  the  lungs. 


34 

The  pharynx,  d,  forms  a  common  passage-way  through  which 
both  food  and  air  pass,  and  the  valves,  k,  n,  prevent  the  passage  of 
food  into  the  wind-pipe,  and  permit  breathing  to  take  place  with 
safety  during  the  process  of  mastication.  If  we  were  obliged  to 
breathe  through  the  mouth-passage,  a,  while  the  mouth  contains 
partly  masticated  food,  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  prevent 
particles  from  being  drawn  into  the  lungs  with  the  breath.  The 
valve,  n  (the  soft  palate),  obviates  such  a  catastrophe  by  shutting  in 
the  contents  of  the  mouth  during  the  process  of  mastication,  by 
closing  against  p  (the  back  of  the  tongue),  as  shown  by  dotted 
lines.  Breathing  can  be  carried  on  safely  behind  the  soft  palate 
through  the  nasal  passages,  b,  c.  When,  however,  the  process  of 
mastication  is  completed,  a  new  danger  threatens  the  lungs.  The 
food,  on  its  way  to  the  stomach  through  the  aesophagus,  e,  must 
pass  the  upper  end  of  the  wind-pipe,  f.  The  valve,  k,  (the  epiglottis), 
closes  tightly  against  m  during  the  act  of  swallowing,  and  thus 
prevents  the  possibility  of  food  obtaining  access  to  the  wrong  pas- 
sage-way. The  larynx  constitutes  a  sort  of  box  on  top  of  the 
wind-pipe,  of  which  the  epiglottis  k,  forms  the  lid.  In  the  diagram, 
I  have  represented  the  lid  as  shutting  down  on  the  top  of  the  box, 
but  in  the  actual  instrument  of  speech  the  box  also  shuts  up  against 
the  lid.  Place  your  hand  against  your  throat,  and  you  can  feel  the 
larynx  rise  when  you  make  the  act  of  swallowing.  In  speech,  the 
soft  palate,  n,  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  directing  the  breath  through 
the  mouth  or  nasal  passages,  as  desired,  When  it  shuts  against  p, 
(the  back  of  the  tongue),  air  from  the  lungs  passes  up  behind  it 
through  the  nasal  passages,  b,  c,  and  no  air  can  escape  through  the 
mouth,  a.  When  it  shuts  against  q,  (the  back  of  the  pharynx),  air 
from  the  lungs  passes  in  front  of  it,  through  the  mouth,  a,  and  no 
air  escapes  through  the  nasal  passages,  b,  c.  When  it  hangs  half 
way  down,  as  shown  in  the  position  o,  n,  air  from  the  lungs  escapes 
through  all  three  passages,  a,  b,  c,  simultaneously 

METHODS   OF    STUDYING    THE    MECHANISM   OF  SPEECH. 

I  have  already  directed  your  attention  to  the  fact  that  many 
words,  and  even  sentences,  may  be  pronounced  during  a  single 
effort  of  expiration.  The  muscles  concerned  in  expiration  produce  a 
continuous,  steady  pressure  upon  the  air  in  the  thorax,  during  the 
act  of  speech.  In  fact,  we  play  upon  the  instrument  of  speech  as 
the  piper  plays  upon  the  bagpipe.  The  piper's  arm  continuously 


squeezes  the  bag  all  the  time  he  is  playing.  He  does  not  jerk  his 
arm  in  time  to  the  music.  A  continuous,  steady  pressure  exists  all 
the  time  his  fingers  are  moving.  When  an  amateur  tries  to  play 
upon  the  bagpipe  for  the  first  time,  he  is  apt  to  give  a  fresh  squeeze 
for  every  note,  producing  an  effect  somewhat  like  the  jerky  utter- 
ance of  deaf  children  who  have  been  taught  word-by-word 
articulation. 

When  children  are  taught  at  first  to  pronounce  each  word  by 
itself,  with  a  distinct  and  separate  effort  of  emission,  an  intermittent 
action  of  the  abdominal  muscles  is  apt  to  become  habitual,  even  in 
rapid  utterance. 

We  have  had  the  opportunity  of  listening  to  pupils  from  Mil- 
waukee, Boston,  and  Philadelphia,  and  I  have  been  delighted  to 
observe  that  they  do  not  exhibit  this  fault.  Whatever  defects  of 
speech  they  possess,  they  do  not  exhibit  the  fundamental  error  of 
word-by-word,  syllable-by-syllable  articulation.  I  would  certainly 
recommend  to  your  notice  the  exercises  that  have  been  so  success- 
ful in  producing  continuity  of  utterance  in  their  cases. 

The  material  from  which  speech  is  made,  is  a  store  of  com- 
pressed air  within  the  thorax,  which  is  let  out  little  by  little,  in  a 
continuous,  steady  stream,  and  moulded  into  the  various  sounds  of 
speech.  No  compression  is  possible  unless  the  escape  of  air  is 
restrained.  In  order  that  we  should  have  a  continuous,  steady 
stream,  it  is  necessary  that  emission  should  take  place  through 
only  a  very  fine  orifice.  You  all  probably  know  the  effect  of  restrain- 
ing the  emission  of  fluid  from  a  pipe,  under  pressure.  If  you 
haven't  made  the  experiment,  partially  plug  the  orifice  of  a  faucet 
with  your  finger,  while  the  water  is  running.  At  once  the  slow, 
silent  stream,  is  converted  into  a  rushing  torrent,  which  spurts  out 
with  great  noise.  Instead  of  a  large  quantity  of  water  coming  out 
slowly,  you  have  a  small  quantity  rushing  out  quickly.  Instead  of  a 
silent  flow  you  have  noise.  In  the  production  of  noise  a  little 
water  goes  a  great  way,  and  a  steady  stream  can  be  sustained  for  a 
long  period  of  time,  without  the  expenditure  of  much  fluid. 

In  a  similar  manner,  noise  is  produced  by  partially  plugging  the 
air-passage  from  the  lungs ;  and  all  the  elements  of  speech  result 
from  constrictions  of  some  kind.  In  studying  the  mechanism  of 
speech-sounds,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  location 
and  nature  of  those  constrictions  that  produce  and  modify  the 
sounds. 


36 

Now  how  are  you  going  to  describe  a  constriction  ?  My  father 
has  pointed  out  that  the  principal  organs  concerned  in  the  produc- 
tion of  speech,  naturally  group  themselves  into  two  classes,  active 
and  passive.  As  a  general  rule,  the  lower  organs  are  active,  and  the 
upper  passive.  For  example:  In  forming  the  sound  of  /,  the  point 
of  the  tongue  is  the  active  agent  involved,  and  the  upper  gum  is  the 
passive.  In  this  case  the  two  organs  are  approximated  together  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  completely  close  the  passage-way  between 
them. 

In  describing  other  constrictions  also,  it  is  usual  to  designate : — 

(a)  The  active  organ  employed; 

(b)  The  passive  organ ;  and 

(c)  The  condition  of  the  passage-way  between  them. 
Whether  or  not  we  adopt  my  father's  classification  into  active 

and  passive  organs,  it  is  certainly  the  case  that  we  are  obliged,  in 
defining  accurately  the  location  and  nature  of  a  constriction,  to  dis- 
tinguish three  associated  elements,  viz: — 

f  Two  organs  which  are  approximated  together;  and 
(c)    The  condition  of  the  passage-way  between  them. 

A  constriction  is  usually  termed  "a  position  of  the  vocal 
organs."  When  two  or  more  positions  of  the  vocal  organs  are 
simultaneously  assumed,  the  effect  upon  the  ear  is  that  of  a  single 
sound.  In  such  a  case  the  passage-way  is  constricted  at  more  than 
one  point  at  the  same  time.  For  example:  Take  the  vowel  oo,  in 
such  a  word  as  too.  In  forming  this  sound  three  distinct  positions 
(P,  P,  P',)  are  simultaneously  assumed.  (See  Fig.  6.) 

P.     A  labial  position. 

The  two  organs?  ft    ^  «; 

Passage-way  between  ?       c    A  small  central  aperture. 

P.     A  lingual  position. 

The, wo  organs?  j  »'.  The  ™«£  «""*• 

Passage-way  between  ?       c'  A  small  central  aperture. 

P*.     A  laryngeal  position. 

(  a' 
The  two  organs  ?  -j ,  „  The  two  vocal  cords. 

Passage-way  between  ?        c'    A  slit- like  aperture. 


P 


Fig.  6.  Positions  of  the  vocal  organs  in  forming  the  vowel  oo  in  "  too."  In  this 
diagram  a  side  view  of  the  mouth  is  given  in  seftion,  but  a  front  view  of  the  larynx  so 
as  to  show  both  of  the  vocal  cords. 

The  last  position  (P")  represents  the  condition  of  the  glottis  in 
forming  "voice."  The  passage  of  air  through  the  slit-like  aperture 
occasions  a  vibration  of  the  vocal  cords.  The  glottis  then  alter- 
nately opens  and  closes  with  great  rapidity,  causing  the  emission  of 
a  series  of  puffs  from  the  lungs.  These  puffs  follow  each  other 
with  such  rapidity  that  the  ear  fails  to  distinguish  the  individual  im- 
pulses, and  recognizes  only  a  continuous  effect  of  a  musical  char- 
acter, which  we  term  "voice." 

When  we  come  to  study  the  method  of  symbolizing  positions 
of  the  vocal  organs  devised  by  my  father,  Prof.  A.  Melville  Bell,  and 
called  by  him  "Visible  Speech,"  we  shall  find  great  advantage  from 
considering  the  symbols  as  algebraical  signs.  Positions,  (like  P,  P', 
and  P'),  which  are  simultaneously  assumed,  may  be  considered  as 


38  - 

added  together  (P-f-P'+P*);  but  the  three  elements  (a  b  c)  which 
compose  each  position,  must  be  taken  as  multiplied  into  one  an- 
other (a  x  b  X  c.)  Thus  :— 

Position  for  00=  P+P'+P'=a  b  c  +  a'  b'  c'  +  a*  b*  c'. 

Position  symbols  placed  in  juxtaposition  without  any  connec- 
tive sign  between  them  must  be  taken  as  successively,  not  simul- 
taneously, assumed.  Thus  P  P'  P*  means :  Assume  first  the  posi- 
tion P  alone,  then  P'  alone,  and  then  P"  alone. 

If  the  positions  (P,  P',  P",)  are  assumed  separately,  instead  of 
together,  they  yield  sounds  that  are  quite  unlike  the  vowel  oo.  For 
example:  If  the  labial  position  (P)  be  assumed  without  any  other 
constriction  in  the  passage-way,  a  sound  results  which  is  not  an 
English  element  of  speech.  English-speaking  children,  however, 
give  the  sound  when  they  blow  upon  their  porridge  to  make  it  cool. 

If  the  lingual  position  (P')  alone  be  assumed,  the  resulting  sound 
is  the  German  ch  in  such  a  word  as  nach, 

If  the  vocalizing  position  of  the  glottis,  (?"),  be  assumed  with- 
out any  other  constriction  higher  up  in  the  passage-way,  an  indef- 
inite vowel  sound  results  like  the  er-er-er  of  a  hesitating  speaker,  or 
like  the  vowel  heard  in  such  words  as  her,  sir,  word,  etc. 

If  two  of  the  positions  (P,  P',  P*,)  are  simultaneously  assumed 
without  the  third,  still  other  sounds  result  which  neither  resemble 
the  vowel  oo,  nor  the  sounds  I  have  just  described.  For  example: 

If  the  positions  P  and  P'  are  simultaneously  assumed  without 
P',  the  English  consonant  wh  is  produced. 

If  the  positions  P  and  P'  are  simultaneously  assumed  without 
P',  the  sound  heard  is  that  of  the  German  w,  in  the  word  wie. 

If  the  positions  P'  and  P'  are  simultaneously  assumed  without 
P,  the  result  is  the  Gaelic  vowel  in  the  word  " laogh." 

These  fafts  may  be  arranged  in  tabular  form  as  follows : 

POSITIONS   ASSUMED.  RESULTING   SOUNDS. 

P  Blowing  to  cool. 

P'  German  ch  in  "nach." 

P*  The  vowel  er  in  "  her." 

P  +  P'  The  consonant  wh  in  "what." 

P  +  P*  German  w  in  "  wie. " 

P'  +  P*  Gaelic  ' '  aohg  "in  "  laogh. " 

P  +  P'  +  P'  The  vowel  oo  in  "  too. " 

What  we  term  an  "element  of  speech"  may  in  reality,  like 
the  vowel  oo,  be  the  result  of  a  combination  of  positions.  The  true 


element  of  articulation,  1  think,  is  a  constriction  or  position  of  the 
vocal  organs  rather  than  a  sound.  Combinations  of  positions  yield 
new  sounds  just  as  combinations  of  chemical  elements  yield  new 
substances.  Water  is  a  substance  of  very  different  character  from 
either  of  the  gases  of  which  it  is  formed ;  and  the  vowel  oo  is  a  sound 
of  very  different  character  from  that  of  any  of  its  elementary  positions. 
When  we  symbolize  positions,  the  organic  relations  of  speech- 
sounds  to  one  another  can  be  shown  bv  means  of  an  equation,  for 
example: — 

English  wh  =  P  +  P'. 

German  ch  =  ?'. 
Hence  German  ch  =  English  wh  -P. 

The  equation  asserts  that  the  English  wh  without  the  labial  con- 
striction (P)  is  the  German  ch. 

I  performed  this  equation  upon  the  mouth  of  Mr.  Lyon  during 
the  course  of  my  last  lecture.  While  Mr.  Lyon  was  prolonging  the 
sound  of  wh,  I  forced  his  lips  apart  with  my  fingers,  and  you  then 
heard  the  sound  of  German  ch.  Take  another  case: — 

The  English  vowel  oo  in  "  too  "  =  P  +  F  +  P". 
The  Gaelic  vowel  "  aogh  "  in  "  laogh  "  =  P'  +  P". 
Hence  "aogh"  =00  —  P. 

That  is:  The  English  vowel  " oo,"  without  the  labial  constric- 
tion (P)  is  the  Gaelic  vowel  "aogh." 

If  then  you  desire  to  pronounce  the  Gaelic  vowel  "aogh,  "sing 
the  vowel  oo  while  some  one  else  forces  your  lips  apart.  This  is  a 
direction  that  will  enable  any  English-speaking  person  to  convert 
the  known  vowel  oo  into  the  unknown  Gaelic  sound  "aogh,"  with- 
out the  aid  of  hearing.  In  a  similar  manner,  the  sounds  known  to 
the  deaf  child  can  be  converted  into  the  unknown  sounds  of  the 
English  language.  Indeed,  manipulation  succeeds  better  with  a 
deaf  person  than  with  one  who  hears,  because  the  hearing  person 
attempts  to  retain  the  sound,  whereas  the  deaf  child  simply  tries  to 
retain  the  position. 

The  symbols  of  Visible  Speech  bear  the  same  relation  to  pho- 
netics that  chemical  symbols  do  to  the  science  of  chemistry.  In 
dealing  with  the  mechanism  of  speech,  it  is  as  necessary  now-a- 
days  to  make  use  of  my  father's  symbols,  as  it  is  to  use  chemical 
symbols  in  treating  of  the  composition  of  matter. 

As  many  of  you  are  already  familiar  with  the  subject,  it  will 
not  be  necessary  for  me  to  enter  into  any  detailed  description  of 
Visible  Speech.  I  shall,  therefore,  to-day,  simply  attempt  to  give  a 


40 

general  idea  of  the  nature  of  my  father's  method  of  symbolizing 
positions  of  the  vocal  organs,  so  as  to  enable  those  who  are  unfa- 
miliar with  the  subject  to  follow  me  intelligently  in  my  use  of  the 
symbols. 

The  fundamental  characters  represent  the  vocal  organs  and  the 
various  kinds  of  apertures  employed  in  the  production  of  speech ; 
and  these  can  be  combined  into  a  compound  form  to  express  a 
position  of  the  vocal  organs. 

A  character  shaped  like  a  tube  ( C )  is  used  to  denote  a  very 
small  aperture  for  the  escape  of  breath;  and  when  this  tube  is 
plugged  up  at  one  end  ( 3 )  the  symbol  then  indicates  complete 
closure  of  the  passage-way. 

The  symbols  for  the  principal  organs  ot  speech  are  shown  in 
Figure  7. 

The  active  organs  of  the  mouth,  viz:  the  under  lip,  the  point 
of  the  tongue,  the  top  or  "front"  part  of  the  tongue,  and  the  back 
of  the  tongue  are  represented  by  curves  that  form,  in  such  a  dia- 
gram as  that  shown,  the  outlines  of  the  organs  themselves.  This 
piftorial  basis  forms  an  element  of  great  value  in  teaching  the  deaf. 

The  upper  or  "passive"  organs,  to  which  the  lower  or 
"  a&ive  "  organs  are  usually  applied,  are  represented  by  the  same 
symbols,  written  upon  a  small  scale. 

Thus,  the  symbol  for  the  upper  lip  is  a  miniature  of  that  for  the 
lower  lip;  the  upper  gum,  to  which  the  point  of  the  tongue  is 
usually  applied,  has  the  point-tongue  sign  upon  a  small  scale;  the 
top  of  the  hard  palate  is  expressed  by  the  symbol  for  the  top  or 
"front"  of  the  tongue;  and  that  part  of  the  soft  palate  to  which 
the  back  of  the  tongue  is  applied,  is  denoted  by  the  back-tongue 
symbol  upon  a  reduced  scale. 


Fig  7. 

)     Under  lip.  : 

«-"  Point  of  tongue.  ' 

"  Top  "  or  "  Front "  part  of  tongue.  ' 

(     Back  of  tongue.  < 

S    Back  of  soft  palate.  ' 

|  Slit-like  aperture  between  the  vocal  cords. 


Upper  lip. 

Upper  gum. 

Top  of  hard  palate. 

Front  part  of  soft  palate. 

Back  of  pharynx  behind  soft  palate 


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The  various  combinations  of  these  positions  tabulated  upon 
page  42,  may  be  symbolized  as  follows: 

POSITIONS   ASSUMED. 

Expressed  Expressed 

upon  plan  shown     upon  plan  shown 

in  Fig.  6.  in  Fig.  7.  RESULTING  SOUNDS. 

P D3 Blowing  to  cool. 

P' Cc German  ch  in  ' '  nach." 

P" I The  vowel  win"  her. " 

P  +  P' D3  +  CC The  consonant  wh  in  "what." 

P+P" D3  +  l German  w  in  "wt'e." 

P'+P* Cc  +  l Gaelic  aogh  in  " laogh." 

P+P'  +  p" Q3_(-cc  +  l  ..The  vowel  oo  in   "too." 

The  equations  to  which  I  have  directed  your  attention  may  be 
thus  expressed : 

1.  German  ch  =  English  wh  —  P. 

Cc  =  (O3  +  Cc)  —  O3 

2.  Gaelic  aogh  =  English  oo  —  P. 

Cc  +  I  =  (D3  +  Cc  +  I)  —  O3 

Three  positions  (P,  P',  P"),  have  been  shown  in  Fig.  6,  but  a 
fourth  position,  which  has  not  hitherto  been  noticed,  is  also  indi- 
cated in  that  diagram. 

The  soft  palate  is  in  contact  with  the  back  of  the  pharynx,  thus 
closing  the  entrance  to  the  nasal  passages.  Visible  Speech  affords 
us  a  means  of  expressing  this  position  if  we  so  desire.  The  portion 
of  the  soft  palate  that  fits  against  the  back  of  the  pharynx,  like  other 
active  organs,  is  represented  by  its  own  outline  (i  ),  in  such  a  dia- 
gram as  Fig.  7 ;  and  the  part  of  the  pharynx  with  which  it  makes 
contact  could,  consistently  with  the  notation,  be  represented  by  the 
same  symbol  in  miniature  ('). 

Combining  these  with  the  symbol  for  passage-way  closed 
(3),  we  could  form  the  compound  character  D'  (soft  palate  shut 
against  back  of  pharynx).  In  English  utterance  this  position  is  con- 
stantly assumed  during  the  act  of  speech,  excepting  when  the 
sounds  of  m,  n,  and  ng  occur.  As  a  matter  of  convenience  the 
position  of  the  soft  palate  is  not  noted  excepting  when  these  sounds 
occur. 

When  the  soft  palate  is  depressed,  as  in  Fig.  7,  a  passage-way 
exists  between  it  and  the  back  of  the  pharynx,  through  which  air 
escapes  into  the  nasal  passages. 


44 

This  position  may  be  thus  expressed : 

j-,  j  "  A  central  aperture  between  the  soft  palate  and  the 
(     back  of  the  pharynx." 

In  forming  m  we  shut  the  lips  and  pass  voice  through  the 
nose.  This  sound,  therefore,  results  from  three  positions  which  are 
simultaneously  assumed. 

Position  for  m  =  D3  +  C'  +  I     (See  Fig.  8). 

That  is:  "Under  lip  shut  against  upper  lip"  plus  "central 
aperture,  between  the  soft  palate  and  back  of  the  pharynx,"  plus 
"slit-like  aperture  between  the  vocal  cords." 

Position  for  n  =  D°  +  C1  +  I     (See  Fig.  9). 

That  is,  "point  of  tongue,  shut  against  upper  gum"  plus 
"  central  aperture,  between  the  soft  palate,  and  back  of  the  pharynx,' 
plus  "  slit-like  aperture  between  the  vocal  cords." 

Position  for  ng  —  Qc  +  C'  +  I     (See  Fig.  10). 

That  is:  "Back  of  the  tongue  shut  against  the  soft  palate" 
plus  "  central  aperture,  between  the  soft  palate  and  back  of  the  phar- 
ynx "  plus  "  slit-like  aperture  between  the  vocal  cords." 

RESUME   OF   ELEMENTARY   POSITIONS. 

D°  =  Under  lip,  shut  against  upper  lip. 

Du  =  Point  of  tongue,  shut  against  upper  gum. 

Qn  —  Top  (or  "front")  of  tongue,  shut,  against  top  of  hard 
palate. 

Qc  —  Back  of  tongue,  shut  against  soft  palate. 

D'  =  Soft  palate,  shut  against  back  of  pharynx. 

OD  =  Central  aperture,  between  the  under  lip  and  the  upper 
lip. 

U°  =  Central  aperture  between  the  point  of  the  tongue  and 
the  upper  gum. 

O°  =  Central  aperture  between  the  top  (or  "front")  of  the 
tongue  and  the  hard  palate. 

Cc  =  Central  aperture  between  the  back  of  the  tongue  and  the 
soft  palate. 

£'  =  Central  aperture  between  the  soft  palate  and  back  of  the 
pharynx. 

I  =  Slit-like  aperture  between  the  two  vocal  cords. 

An  elementary  position  is  expressed  by  a  symbol  composed  of 
three  associated  characters.  For  example : — 

O'  =  :r  or  P  =  a  b  c.     (Fig.  6). 

The  sign   for  the  constriction  (c)  is  united  with  that  for  the 


45 


Fig.  10.     Position  for  NG. 

i -  c(     ac  =  s 


Fig.  8.     Position  for  M. 


Fig.  9.     Position  for  N. 


c •••••-, 


46 

active  organ  (a)  so  as  to  form  one  character;  and  the  passive  organ 
(b)  appears  as  a  diacritical  mark. 

In  order  to  express  the  mechanism  of  speech-sounds  with  accu- 
racy, as  many  symbols  are  required  as  there  are  elementary  positions 
to  be  represented.  Hence  many  sounds  like  the  vowel  oo  (Fig.  6), 
require  at  least  three  position-symbols  to  express  their  formation. 
(See  also  positions  for  m,  n,  and  ng;  Figs.  8,  9,  10.) 

This  method  of  symbolization,  though  admirable  for  the  pur- 
poses of  scientific  analysis,  would  be  unsuitable  for  current  use  as  a 
phonetical  representation  of  speech.  For  example:  It  would 
hardly  be  convenient  to  write  the  word  "moon"  in  the  following 
way! 

M  OO  N 

(D3  +  C1  +  I)  (D3  -f  Cc  +  I)  Du  +  C'  +  I) 

See  Fig.  8.  See  Fig.  6  See  Fig.  9. 

In  order  to  fit  the  symbols  for  use  as  a  phonetical  alphabet,  my 
father  saw  that  it  was  necessary,  or  at  all  events  advisable,  that  each 
sound  should  be  represented  by  only  one  character;  and  that  there- 
fore, associated  positions  should  be  combined  into  a  compound  form 
capable  of  use  like  a  letter  of  the  alphabet. 

By  the  adoption  of  certain  principles  of  abbreviation  this  has 
been  accomplished  without  interfering  with  the  symbolic  character 
of  the  notation. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

i.  Passive  organs  may  in  general  be  implied  and  not  written. 
This  plan  gets  rid  of  the  diacritical  marks  save  in  exceptional  cases. 
For  example:  O  ("  Point  shut")  alone,  without  any  representation 
of  the  passive  organ,  is  to  be  taken  as  meaning  Du  ("Point  shut 
against  the  upper  gum  ")  for  the  upper  gum  is  the  usual  place  of 
application  for  the  point  of  the  tongue.  The  symbol  expresses  the 
position  for  /. 

If,  however,  a  deaf  child  should  pronounce  /  by  placing  the 
point  of  the  tongue  against  the  top  of  the  hard  palate,  then  the 
passive  organ  must  be  shown,  thus  O°.  So  also  when  we  repre- 
sent the  /-like  sound  produced  during  the  aft  of  spitting,  CP 
("  Point  of  the  tongue,  shut,  against  the  upper  lip.") 

In  forming  the  Sanscrit  "cerebral  /"  Dc  ("  Point  of  the  tongue, 
shut  against  the  soft  palate  ")  the  passive  organ,  being  abnormal, 
must  also  be  indicated. 

In  general,  the  passive  organ  may  be  omitted  without  ambi- 
guity, by  adopting  the  rule  that  in  such  cases  the  aftive  organ  shall 


47 

be  considered  as  applied  to  that  passive  organ  which  is  represented 
by  its  own  symbol  in  miniature.     For  example: 

D  =  O=>     0  =  UU     0  =  0"     C  =  CC     £  =  £' 

D  =  D3    o  =  ou    D  =  Q°  a  =  ac    a  =  a* 

2.  I  have  already  alluded   to   the    abbreviation    employed    to 
represent  the  vocalizing  position  of  the  larynx.     The  slit-like  aper- 
ture (I)  alone,  is  used  for  the  full  position  —  the  organs  themselves 
(the  vocal  cords)  being  implied.     This  simple  symbol  (I)  is  admirably 
adapted  for  combination  with  other  signs  into  a  single  character. 

For  example:  — 

D3  +  I  =  D  +  I  =  0 

Du  +  I  =  D  +  I  =  0 
D°  +  I  =  Q  +  I  =  Q 

cr  +  1  =  a  +  1  =  a 

O3  +  Cc  +  I  (Fig.  6)  =  0  +  C  +  |  =  3  +  C  =  0  +  e  =  3  +  e 

3.  The  symbol  I  ("soft  palate")  is  used  to  indicate  C'  (centre- 
aperture,  between  the  soft  palate  and  back  of  the  pharynx  ").     This 
can  be  combined  with  other  symbols  into  a  single   character.     For 
example:  — 

(Fig.   8)  D3  +  C'  +  l  =  D  +  *+|:=0  +  l  =  3  +  J  =  B  (Position  for 


(Fig.  9)OU  +  C'  +  I=  O  +  J  +  l  =  C3  +  |  =  G7  +  J  =  tf  (Position  for 
«). 

(Fig.  10.)  ae  +  cf  +  i  =  a-f  §  +  i  =  a+i  =  e+j  =  e   (Position 

for  fig). 

4.  The  most  difficult  case  arises  when  two  mouth-positions  are 
simultaneously  assumed,  Fortunately  the  curves  to  be  combined 
are  usually  of  opposite  kind  so  that  one  can  be  hooked  on  to  the 
end  of  the  other. 

Thus  C  +  O  =  O  or  tf 

The  resulting  character,  however,  is  of  so  awkward  a  shape 
that  another  hook  is  added  for  the  sake  of  symmetry.  Curves  of 
this  kind  are  what  my  father  terms  "mixed"  symbols.  For 
example:  — 

C  +  3  =  £>  a  labial  position  modified  by  the  back  of  the 
tongue  (English  wh). 

Or  =  c  a  back  tongue  position  modified  by  the  lips.  (A  labi- 
alized German  cli). 

O  -f-  U  =  Q  a  front-tongue  position  modified  by  the  point  of 
he  tongue  (English  sh). 


48 

Or  =  y  a  point-tongue  position  modified  by  the  top  or  '  'front  " 
of  the  tongue  (English  s). 

5.  When  two  or  more  positions  are  simultaneously  assumed, 
the  sound  may  be  considered  as  originating  at  the  point  of  greatest 
constriction — the  other  constrictions  merely  modifying  the  effect. 

In  representing  associated  positions,  therefore,  the  point  of 
greatest  constriction  is  selected  as  the  base  for  the  compound  sym- 
bol, and  the  other  positions  are  indicated  in  a  subordinate  manner. 

For  example,  take  the  positions  shown  in  Fig.  6.  In  this  case 
we  have  three  associated  positions,  P,  P',  and  P*. 

Now  if  P,  (the  labial  position),  should  happen  to  be  the  point  of 
greatest  constriction,  a  rustling  noise  will  be  perceived  originating 
at  the  labial  aperture. 

This  kind  of  sound  is  characteristic  of  air  under  pressure, 
escaping  through  a  fine  orifice.  We  can  recognize  by  ear  many 
varieties  of  the  sound  for  which  we  have  no  name.  It  varies, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  orifice,  and  the  degree  of  pressure, 
from  a  simple  rustling  sound — like  the  rustling  of  leaves  upon  a  tree, 
to  an  intense  hiss — like  the  noise  of  steam  escaping  from  a  loco- 
motive. When  the  vocal  organs  yield  a  noise  of  this  character,  we 
call  the  effect  a  "  consonant  sound." 

If,  then,  the  oo-like  effect  produced  by  the  positions  shown  in 
Fig,  6,  is  accompanied  by  a  rustling  sound  at  the  labial  orifice  (P), 
we  call  the  result  a  labial  "consonant,"  and  not  a  "  vowel"  although 
the  voice  is  heard.  The  labial  position  becomes  the  base  for  the 
compound  symbol  which  is  then  written  as  follows : — 

y  +  Cc  +  I  =  S  (English  w)  a  labial  position  modified  by 
the  back  of  the  tongue  and  the  throat. 

If  P',  (Fig.  6),  be  the  point  of  greatest  constriction  a  rustling 
sound  is  also  heard,  but  in  this  case  it  originates  within  the  mouth,  at 
the  back-tongue  position  (German  ch],  and  the  labial  aperture 
simply  modifies  the  effect.  This  rustling  noise  characterizes  the 
sound  as  a  "  consonant  "  although  the  voice  is  also  heard.  In  this 
case  the  back-tongue  position  becomes  the  base  and  the  other  posi- 
tions are  indicated  in  a  subordinate  manner. 

Cc  +  O3  +  I  =  G  (German  ch  modified  by  the  lips  and 
vocal  cords. 

If  P'  (Fig.  6),  be  the  point  of  greatest  constriction,  the  sound 
heard  originates  in  the  glottis.  Instead  of  a  continuous  rustling 
noise  or  hiss,  an  intermittent  effect  is  produced  by  the  vibration  of 
the  vocal  cords.  The  air  escapes  in  a  series  of  puffs  that  succeed 


49 

one  another  with  such  rapidity  as  to  produce  upon  the  ear  the  effect 
of  a  musical  tone.  Voice  alone  is  heard  without  any  rustling  or 
whistling  accompaniment  in  the  mouth.  This  characterizes  the 
sound  as  a  "vowel".  The  sound  originates  at  the  position  P',  and 
the  mouth  positions  P,  P',  merely  modify  the  effecl;. 

The  slit-like  aperture  between  the  vocal  cords  is  therefore 
made  the  base  for  the  compound  symbol;  and  the  mouth  positions 
P,  P',  are  indicated  in  a  subordinate  manner  as  follows  :  — 

I  +  Cc  +  Oc  =  i  (vowel  00),  a  laryngeal  position  modified 
by  the  back  of  the  tongue  and  the  lips. 

The  vertical  line  or  "vowel  stem,"  represents  (I)  the  slit-like 
aperture  between  the  vocal  cords  (P",  Fig.  6),  the  black  dot  indi- 
cates the  back-tongue  position  Cc  (F)  •  and  the  horizontal  cross- 
bar the  labial  position  O3  (P). 

The  three  sounds  represented  by  the  symbols  J9,  C  and  i, 
result  from  almost  identical  positions  of  the  vocal  organs,  and  in 
teaching  the  deaf  the  sounds  themselves  may  be  considered  as  iden- 
tical. The  subtle  distinctions,  however,  recognized  by  the  ear  are 
faithfully  depicted  to  the  eye,  in  the  shape  and  general  appearance 
of  the  symbols. 

The  symbols  for  w  (S3),  and  the  vowel  00  (1),  may  be  taken  as 
typical  of  consonant  and  vowel  symbols  in  general.  A  curve  (/.  e. 
a  mouth-position),  is  the  characteristic  feature  of  a  consonant  sym- 
bol; and  a  straight  line  (I)  (the  slit-like  aperture  between  the  vocal 
cords),  forms  the  basis  of  the  vowel  notation. 

In  conclusion  I  may  say  that  the  symbols  for  all  the  English 
consonants  and  vowels  have  been  abbreviated  to  single  signs,  and 
that  the  phonetical  alphabet  thus  produced  is  admirably  adapted  for 
use  in  schools  for  the  deaf.  The  following  example  of  abbreviation 
may  be  of  interest  : 

M  OO  N 


Fig.  8.  Fig.  6.  Fig.  9. 

In  my  next  lecture  I  shall  present  the  symbols  of  Visible  Speech 
in  the  way  they  are  taught  to  the  deaf. 

Dr.  Bell  then  took  charge  of  some  children  and  illustrated  his 
method  of  teaching. 

Dr.  Bell  :  You  must  understand  that  while  I  claim  the  privi- 
lege of  telling  you  in  the  forenoon  what  I  want  to  tell  you,  I  want 
to  do  in  the  afternoon  just  what  you  want. 

(Dr.  Bell  here  gave  an  exhibition  of  the  clicks  with  Miss  Black's 
little  girl  pupil.) 


50 

He  said:  "It  does  not  matter  what  sound  you  get  from  a  child 
as  long  as  you  get  a  sound.  The  plan  is  to  follow  the  child  up  and 
symbolize  the  different  sounds  made,  and  get  him  to  remember  and 
repeat  the  varieties  that  occur.  I  go  from  the  known  to  the  un- 
known. The  queer  sounds  children  make  are  the  known  sounds  to 
them  and  the  English  sounds  the  unknown.  Children  like  the 
process,  and  this  to  my  mind  is  a  proof  that  it  is  suited  to  their  con- 
dition. There  is  something  wrong  about  a  process  that  gives  pain 
to  a  child.  It  grieves  my  heart  to  visit  schools  for  the  deaf  and  find 
little  children  constantly  corrected  for  minor  defects  of  pronuncia- 
tion. The  nagging  process  interrupts  the  flow  of  thought  through 
speech,  and  is  apt  to  dishearten  the  child  in  his  attempts  to  speak. 
I  would  accept  all  sounds  with  approval,  and  utilize  defective  sounds 
in  the  way  I  have  suggested  above." 


VISIBLE  SPEECH  AS  TAUGHT  TO  THE  DEAF. 


The  following  Charts  are  employed  for  the  purpose  of  explain- 
ing to  deaf  children  the  meaning  of  mv  father's  "Visible  Speech" 
symbols. 

The  elementary  symbols  shown  in  Chart  1.  are  compounded  in 
Charts  II.  and  III.  to  express  positions  of  the  vocal  organs  which 
yield  consonant  sounds.  In  Chart  IV.  we  have  other  elementary 
symbols  which  are  combined  in  Chart  V.  to  express  vowel  positions. 
Chart  VI.  illustrates  symbolically  the  positions  of  the  vocal  organs 
in  uttering  English  consonants,  and  Chart  VII.  symbolizes  positions 
that  yield  English  vowels. 

CHART  I. 

The  teacher  selects  some  member  of  her  class,  and  pretends  to 
draw  upon  the  blackboard  the  profile  of  the  pupil's  face.  She  then 
looks  into  the  pupil's  mouth  and  proceeds  to  draw  a  picture  of  the 
interior  of  the  mouth.  The  whole  picture  when  completed,  con- 
stitutes a  diagram  like  that  shown  in  Chart  I.  The  teacher  then 
proceeds  to  test  the  children's  comprehension  of  the  drawing.  She 
points  to  different  parts  of  the  diagram,  for  example  the  forehead, 
nose,  upper  lip,  lower  lip,  chin,  lower  part  of  jaw,  throat,  etc.  The 
children  indicate  their  comprehension  of  the  diagram  by  touching 
the  corresponding  parts  of  their  own  faces.  Attention  is  then 
directed  to  the  interior  of  the  mouth,  and  the  teacher  points  to  the 
picture  of  the  upper  teeth,  upper  gum,  top  of  the  hard  palate,  soft 
palate,  etc.  The  children  touch  or  attempt  to  touch  the  correspond- 
ing parts  of  their  own  mouths.  So  with  the  lower  organs, — the 
under  teeth,  the  point  of  the  tongue,  the  top  or  "front "  part  of  the 
tongue,  the  back  of  the  tongue,  etc. 


52 

When  the  comprehension  of  the  class  has  been  well  tested,  the 
teacher  erases  from  the  blackboard  all  those  parts  of  the  diagram 
which  are  shown  by  dotted  lines  in  Chart  I.,  leaving  the  Visible 
Speech  symbols  in  position  as  shown  by  the  heavy  lines. 

The  teacher  points  to  the  fragmentary  remains  of  the  picture 
upon  the  blackboard,  and  the  pupils  recognize  the  symbols  as  "the 
nose,"  the  "under  lip,"  "the  point  of  the  tongue,"  "the  top,  or 
front  of  the  tongue,"  "the  back  of  the  tongue,"  and  "the  throat." 
The  arrow-head,  which  represents  a  sudden  emission,  or  puff,  of  air 
from  the  mouth,  is  indicated  by  a  sudden  motion  of  the  hand  away 
from  the  mouth. 

The  next  step  is  to  have  the  pupils  recognize  the  symbols  inde- 
pendently of  their  position  on  the  blackboard.  The  symbols  are 
therefore  written  in  one  line  below  the  fragments  of  the  head  (see 
Chart  I.)  The  heavy  lines  alone  are  written,  the  dotted  lines  not 
appearing  at  all. 

The  pupils  then  compare  these  symbols  with  the  fragments  of 
the  drawings  above  and  identify  them, — as  (i)  the  throat,  (2)  the 
back  of  the  tongue,  (3)  the  top,  or  front  part,  of  the  tongue,  (4) 
the  point  of  the  tongue,  (5)  the  under  lip,  (6)  the  nose,  and  (7) 
puff  of  air  from  the  mouth. 

Finally  the  upper  drawing  is  entirely  removed  from  the  black- 
board, and  the  lower  line  of  symbols  alone  is  left.  Each  pupil 
describes  these  as  follows :  (i)  he  touches  his  throat ;  (2)  he  points 
backwards  into  his  mouth  with  a  little  jerk  of  the  hand,  indicating 
a  part  of  the  tongue  further  back  in  the  mouth  than  he  can  well 
touch  with  his  finger;  (3)  he  touches  the  top,  or  front  part,  of  his 
tongue;  (4)  he  touches  the  tip,  or  point,  of  his  tongue;  (5)  he 
touches  his  under  lip;  (6)  he  touches  his  nose;  (7)  he  places  his 
hand  near  his  mouth  to  indicate  a  sudden  emission,  or  puff,  of  air. 

After  these  have  been  mastered,  two  new  symbols,  shown  at 
the  bottom  of  Chart  I.  are  introduced.  Here  again  it  should  be 
noticed  that  the  symbols  drawn  on  the  blackboard  consist  only  of 
the  parts  in  heavy  lines,  the  parts  in  dotted  lines  being  omitted. 
The  first  of  these  new  marks  as  you  already  know,  symbolizes  a 
pipe  or  passage  through  which  air  may  pass.  In  the  second  case 
the  pipe  is  shut,  or  stopped  up,  at  one  end.  The  first  indicates  a 
narrow  central  aperture  or  passage,  somewhere  in  the  mouth ;  the 
second  indicates  the  complete  closure  or  shutting  of  the  mouth- 
passage  at  some  part.  The  idea  is  of  too  abstract  a  character  to  be 
explained  at  once  to  a  deaf  child  who  knows  no  language ;  hence 


CHART    I 


I  C  n  u   ) 

CO 


\ 


54 

these  symbols  are  taught  arbitrarily  as  positions  of  the  fingers  with- 
out any  attempt  being  made  to  explain  their  significance.  As  a 
matter  of  facl,  deaf  children  come  to  understand  their  meaning  when 
applied  to  the  explanation  of  positions  of  the  mouth. 

The  pupils  are  taught  to  indicate  the  first  symbol  at  the  bottom 
of  Chart  I.  by  holding  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  right  hand 
near  to  one  another  without  touching.  This  sign  we  may  translate 
as  "centre  aperture."  The  second  or  "shut"  symbol,  is  shown  by 
bringing  the  thumb  and  forefinger  together  with  a  shutting  action. 

We  may  here  notice  that  the  straight  line  indicating  a  slit-like 
aperture  between  the  vocal  cords,  is  used  in  the  sense  of  "voice." 
When  a  deaf  child  places  his  hand  upon  the  throat  of  his  teacher 
he  can  feel  a  vibration  or  tremor  in  the  throat,  whenever  the  voice 
is  sounded.  Hence  he  soon  comes  to  associate  the  throat  sign  with 
a  vibration  of  the  vocal  cords,  and  he  indicates  "voice"  by  touch- 
ing his  throat. 

It  should  also  be  noticed  that  the  "  nose  "  sign  is  really  pictorial 
of  the  pendulous  extremity  of  the  soft  palate,  and  it  indicates,  as 
you  have  already  learned,  "soft  palate  depressed"  so  as  to  allow 
air  to  pass  into  the  nasal  passages.  When  a  deaf  child  places  his 
finger  against  the  nose  of  his  teacher  while  she  pronounces  m,  n,  or 
ng,  he  can  feel  a  vibration  or  tremor  of  the  nostrils,  and  to  him  the 
soft  palate  symbol  means  voice  or  breath  passing  through  the  nose. 

The  symbols  shown  upon  Chart  I.  are  capable  of  being  com- 
bined into  compound  forms,  some  of  which  are  shown  in  Charts  II. 
and  III..  Before  proceeding,  however,  to  the  analysis  of  the  com- 
pound characters  on  these  Charts  it  may  be  well  to  assign  brief 
names  to  the  elementary  symbols  of  Chart  I. :  these  we  can  use  to 
designate  the  gestures  or  signs  employed  by  the  deaf  child  which 
have  been  explained  above. 

In  the  following  Charts,  I  shall  refer  to  the  symbols  at  the  bot- 
tom of  Chart  I.  as  — 

i.  Voice.  2.  Back.  3.  Front.  4.  Point.  5.  Lip.  6.  Nose. 
7.  Puff  of  air.  8.  Centre-aperture.  9.  Shut. 

CHART   II. 

The  symbols  on  this  Chart  are  named  by  the  deaf  child  by 
analyzing  them  into  the  elementary  symbols  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed. We  may  translate  his  signs  as  follows  :— 

First  line. —  i.  Lip  centre-aperture.  2.  Point  centre-aperture. 
3.  Front  centre-aperture.  4.  Back  centre-aperture. 


55 

Second  line. — i.  Lip  centre-aperture.  Voice.     2.  Point  centre 
aperture,  Voice.    3.  Front  centre-aperture,  Voice.    4.  Back 
centre-aperture,  Voice. 

Third  line. — i.  Lip  centre-aperture,  Nose.  2.  Point  centre- 
aperture,  Nose.  3.  Front  centre-aperture,  Nose.  4.  Back 
centre-aperture,  Nose. 

Fourth  line. — i.  Lip  centre-aperture,  Voice,  Nose.     2.    Point 
centre-aperture,    Voice,   Nose.     3.    Front  centre-aperture, 
Voice,  Nose.     4.  Back  centre-aperture,  Voice,  Nose. 
Fifth  line. — i.  Lip  shut.    2.  Point  shut.     3.  Front  shut.  4.  Back 

shut. 
Sixth  line. — i.    Lip  shut,    Voice.     2.    Point  shut,    Voice.     3. 

Front  shut,  Voice.     4.  Back  shut,  Voice. 
Seventh  line. — i.  Lip  shut,  Nose.     2.  Point  shut,   Nose.     3. 

Front  shut,  Nose.     4.  Back  shut,  Nose. 

Eighth  line. — i.  Lip  shut,  Voice,  Nose.  2.  Point  shut,  Voice, 
Nose.  3.  Front  shut,  Voice,  Nose.  4.  Back  shut,  Voice, 

Nose. 

Long  before  a  class  has  finished  describing  these  symbols,  the 
pupils  begin  to  obtain  the  idea  that  the  symbols  are  directions  to  do 
something  with  the  mouth.  For  example,  when  they  describe  the 
first  symbol  in  the  fifth  line,  "  Lip  shut,"  some  of  them  usually  shut 
their  lips.  After  the  whole  Chart  has  been  described,  it  then 
becomes  the  teacher's  duty  to  make  the  children  understand  that 
the  compound  symbols  they  have  been  describing  indicate  positions 
of  the  mouth.  The  teacher  directs  attention  to  her  mouth  while 
she  assumes  some  of  the  positions  symbolized.  For  example,  she 
describes  seriatim  the  symbols  in  the  first  line. 

1.  "Lip  centre-aperture."     She  places  her  lips  close  together 
leaving  a  small  aperture  between   them.     She  then  takes  a  pupil's 
hand  and  blows  through  this  small  centre-nperture  against  his  hand. 
The  resulting  sound  is  not  an  English  element  of  speech,  but  is  the 
sound  produced  by  blowing  to  cool  something. 

2.  She  describes   the   next  symbol,    "Point  centre-aperture." 
With   her  hand  she  lifts  up  the  point  of  her  tongue  and  brings  it 
into  position  against  the  upper  gum,  and  makes  the  pupil  look  into 
her  mouth  and  observe  that  there  is  a  small  aperture  or  hole  between 
the  point  of  her  tongue  and  the  upper  gum.     She  then,  without 
moving  her  tongue,  blows  through  the  point  centre-aperture  against 
the  pupil's  hand.     The  resultant  sound  is  that  of  the  French  r,  in 
the  word  theatre,  or  the  English  r,  (non- vocal),  in  the  word  tree. 


56 

In  a  similar  manner  she  shows  that  in  pronouncing  the  third 
symbol  "Front  centre-aperture,"  the  tongue  is  humped  up  in  the 
middle,  leaving  a  small  centre  passage  or  channel  over  the  front  of 
the  tongue,  through  which  she  can  blow  against  the  pupil's  hand. 
The  resultant  sound  is  that  of  the  letter  h  in  the  word  hue. 

4.  In  pronouncing  the  fourth  symbol  she  pushes  her  tongue 
towards  the  back  part  of  her  mouth  with  her  hand,  and  shows  that 
her  tongue  remains  back  when  her  hand  is  removed.  She  then  lets 
the  pupil  feel  that  air  can  be  blown  upon  his  hand  without  moving 
the  tongue.  The  resulting  sound  is  that  of  the  German  ch  in  the 
word  nach. 

Proceeding  next  to  the  second  line:  — 

1.  She  shows  that  the  first    symbol,    "Lip  center-aperture, 
Voice,"  is  the  same  as  the  first  symbol  in  the  first  line,  "  Lip  centre- 
aperture,"  excepting  that  a  straight  line  is  placed  within  the  curve. 
She  shows  then  that  the  lips  are  in  the  same  position,  but  that  a 
tremor  or  vibration  can  be  felt  in  the  throat  which  could  not  be  felt 
when  the  other  symbol  was  sounded.     She  takes  the  two  hands  of 
her   pupil  and  places  one  against  her  throat,  and  holds  the  other  in 
front  of  her  mouth   while    she    produces    "Lip    centre-aperture, 
Voice."     The  pupil  sees  the  small  centre-aperture  between  the  lips, 
and  feels  the  emission  of  air  against  his  hand,  and  also  perceives  the 
trembling  of  the  throat  when  the  voice  is  sounded.     The  resulting 
sound  is  the  German  w  in  the  word  wie. 

2.  In  a  similar  manner,  keeping  one  of  the  pupil's  hands  on 
her  throat  and  the  other  in  front  of  the  mouth,  she  produces  the 
second  symbol  in  the  second  line,  "Point  centre-aperture,  Voice/' 
contrasting  it  with  the  second  symbol  in  the  first  line,  which  has 
no  voice.     He  sees  the  centre-aperture  over  the  point  of  the  tongue, 
and  feels  the  vibration  of  the  voice  and  the  emission  of  air  from  the 
mouth.     The  resulting  sound  is  that  of  the  letter  r  in  the  word  run. 

3.  In  a  similar  manner  she  exemplifies  the  third  symbol  in  the 
second  line,  "  Front  centre-aperture,  Voice."    The  resultant  sound 
is  that  of  the  consonant  y  in  you.     In  teaching  the  deaf,  this  may 
be  considered  identical  with  the  vowel  ee. 

4.  The  fourth  symbol  in  the  second  line,  "  Back  centre-aperture, 
Voice,"  is  shown  to  be  the  same  as  the  German  ch  (Back  centre- 
aperture),  excepting  that  a  vibration  is  felt  in  the  throat. 

Proceeding  next  to  the  eighth  line  :— 

i.  The  teacher  describes  the  first  symbol,  "  Lip  shut,  Voice, 
Nose."  In  forming  this  sound  the  lips  are  shut  and  the  voice  is 


CHART    II 


)      O      O       ( 


)    U    ft    <: 


O 


CH   €s 

D   O   Q    Q 


O   ffl   Q 

D   O   Q   G 

B   G3  CD 


passed  through  the  nose.  She  places  one  of  the  pupil's  hands 
against  her  throat,  and  the  other  against  her  nose,  and  produces  the 
sound  of  the  letter  m.  The  pupil  sees  the  closure  of  the  lips  and 
feels  a  vibration  in  the  throat  and  nose. 

2.  The  second  symbol  in  the  eighth  line,  "Point  shut,  Voice, 
Nose,"  represents  the  position  of  the  organs  in  forming  the  letter  n. 
The  pupil  sees  the  point  of  the  tongue  shut  against  the  upper  gum 
and  feels  a  vibration  in  the  throat  and  nose. 

4.  The  last  symbol  in  the  eighth  line,  "Back  shut,  Voice, 
Nose,"  expresses  the  position  of  the  organs  when  producing  ng  in 
such  a  word  as  sing.  Here  the  pupil  sees  that  the  back  of  the 
tongue  is  raised,  and  feels  a  vibration  in  the  throat  and  nose.  The 
object  of  this  exemplification  is  simply  to  make  the  pupils  under- 
stand what  the  symbols  mean,  and  not  to  get  them  to  make  the 
sounds  themselves.  Still,  the  children  generally  try  to  imitate  what 
the  teacher  does,  and  of  course,  in  some  cases  they  fail  because  they 
have  not  yet  acquired  control  over  their  vocal  organs.  As  it  is  not 
the  objecl:  of  their  teacher  at  this  stage  to  cause  the  pupil  to  make 
sounds,  she  should  not  take  any  notice  of  their  failures  for  fear  of 
discouraging  them.  She  should  be  satisfied  with  evidences  of  com- 
prehension as  to  the  meaning  of  the  symbols.  Most  children  are 
able  to  take  Charts  I.  and  II.  in  one  lesson.  After  reviewing  these 
at  a  subsequent  time  the  third  Chart  is  explained. 

CHART   III. 

The  pupil's  attention  is  directed  to  the  symbol  "Lip  centre- 
aperture"  (see  the  first  symbol  in  Chart  II.),  which  he  describes  by 
touching  the  under  lip  and  then  holding  the  thumb  and  forefinger 
close  together  without  touching.  The  teacher  then  directs  attention 
to  the  mouth,  and  shows  that  there  is  only  one  small  hole  through 
which  the  air  passes.  She  then  holds  her  lips  together  in  the  mid- 
dle and  allows  air  to  escape  through  two  side  apertures,  one  at  each 
corner  of  the  mouth,  showing  the  pupil  that  now  there  are  two 
holes  through  which  the  air  escapes  instead  of  one.  This  faft  she 
symbolizes  by  writing  two  "Lip  centre-aperture"  symbols  one  above 
the  other,  *~  thus,  forming  a  character  somewhat  like  the  Arabic 
numeral  j.  This  the  pupil  describes  by  touching  his  lip,  and  then 
holding  near  the  thumb  two  fingers,  instead  of  one  alone,  indicating 
that  the  aperture  is  divided  into  two  parts.  Thus  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  held  together  indicate  one  central  aperture,  and  the  thumb 
held  near  the  fore  and  middle  fingers  indicates  "divided  aperture." 

Turning  now  to  Chart  III.  the  symbols  are  described  as  follows: 


59 

First  line. — i.  Lip  divided-aperture.    2.  Point  divided-aperture. 

3.  Front  divided-aperture.     4.  Back  divided-aperture 
Second  line. — i.  Lip   divided-aperture,  Voice.      2.    Point  di- 
vided-aperture, Voice.     3.  Front  divided-aperture,  Voice. 

4.  Back  divided-aperture,  Voice. 

The  second  symbol  in  the  second  line,  "  Point  divided-aperture, 
Voice,"  expresses  the  position  of  the  tongue  in  forming  the  sound 
of  /  in  such  a  word  as  love.  The  point  of  the  tongue  is  placed 
against  the  upper  gum,  and  the  voice  is  passed  through  two  side 
apertures,  one  on  each  side  of  the  tongue.  The  symbols  in  the 
third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  lines  are  what  my  father  terms  "mixed" 
symbols,  involving  two  positions  of  the  organs  assumed  simulta- 
neously. The  first  symbol  in  the  the  third  line  is  composed  of  a 
large  "Lip  centre-aperture"  symbol  with  a  small  "Back  centre- 
aperture  "  hooked  on  to  one  end  of  the  curve.  For  the  sake  of 
symmetry  another  small  "  Back  centre-aperture  "  is  attached  to  the 
other  end  of  the  curve,  but  this  has  no  organic  significance.  This 
compound  symbol  expresses  the  position  of  the  organs  in  sounding 
the  English  element  represented  by  the  letters  wh  in  such  a  word  as 
•whistle.  The  back  of  the  tongue  is  in  the  position  for  the  German 
ch  (Back  centre-aperture),  while  at  the  same  time  a  small  centre- 
aperture  is  formed  by  the  lips.  The  labial  aperture  being  more 
obstructive  than  the  back  aperture,  characterizes  the  sound  as  a 
labial  letter.  For  this  reason  the  "  Lip  centre-aperture  sign  is  made 
the  most  prominent  part  of  the  compound  symbol.  Deaf  pupils 
describe  this  symbol  as  "Lip  centre-aperture,  Back  centre-aper- 
ture." 

Proceeding  now  with  the  description  of  the  remaining  symbols 

Chart  III.  we  have: — 

Third  line. — i.  Lip  centre-aperture,  Back  centre-aperture.  2. 
Point  centre-aperture,  Front  centre-aperture.  3.  Front 
centre-aperture,  Point  centre-aperture.  4.  Back  centre- 
aperture,  Lip  centre-aperture. 

Fourth  line. — i.  Lip  centre-aperture,  Back  centre-aperture, 
Voice.  2.  Point  centre-aperture,  Front  centre-aperture, 
Voice.  3.  Front  centre-aperture,  Point  centre-aperture, 
Voice.  4.  Back  centre-aperture,  Lip  centre-aperture,  Voice. 
Fifth  line. — i.  Lip  divided-aperture,  Back  centre-aperture.  2. 
Point  divided-aperture,  Front  centre-aperture.  3.  Front 
divided-aperture,  Point  centre-aperture.  4.  Back  divided- 
aperture,  Lip  centre-aperture. 


6o 

Sixth  line. — i.  Lip  divided-aperture,  Back  centre-aperture, 
Voice.  2.  Point  divided-aperture,  Front  centre-aperture, 
Voice.  3.  Front  divided-aperture,  Point  centre-aperture, 
Voice.  4.  Back  divided-aperture,  Lip  centre-aperture, 
Voice. 

Numerous  other  compound  symbols  might  be  built  up  out  of 
the  elementary  signs  shown  in  Chart  I.,  expressing  both  possible  and 
impossible  positions  of  the  organs.  The  forms  shown  in  Charts  II. 
and  III.  are  not  intended  to  be  pronounced  by  the  pupil,  but  are 
given  simply  as  exercises  in  analysis.  If  the  pupil  can  be  made 
to  understand  the  meaning  of  the  compound  symbols  by  analyzing 
them  into  their  elementary  forms,  Visible  Speech  becomes  a  symbolic 
language,  whereby  any  imaginable  position  of  the  vocal  organs  may 
be  expressed,  so  as  to  be  understood  by  the  children. 

The  remaining  symbols  on  Chart  III.  seventh  line,  are  throat 
symbols.  They  picture  various  conditions  of  the  glottis. 

1.  The  first  character,  shaped  like  the  letter  O,  pictures  a  wide 
aperture  in  the  throat.     The  vocal  cords  are  wide  apart,  leaving  a 
large  opening  between   them  through  which  air  may  freely  pass 
without  obstruction.     This  is  the  condition  of  the  glottis  in  uttering 
the  letter  h,  and  all  non-vocal  or  breath  consonants.     The  letter  h 
may,  indeed,  be  considered  as  the  non-vocal  or  breath  form  of  a 
vowel.     It  has  just  as  many  different  sounds  as  there  are  vowels. 
Pronounce  such  words  as  he,  hay,  ha,   hoe,  and  who;  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  mouth-position  for  the  sound  of  h  is  different  in 
each  word.     H  only  occurs  as  an  element  of  speech  before  a  vowel. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  mouth  position  for  h  is  the  same  as 
for  the  succeeding  vowel,  but  the  opening  in  the  glottis  is  so  wide 
as  to  allow  the  breath  to  pass  into  the  mouth   without  sensible 
obstruction  in  the  throat. 

2.  The  second  symbol  in  the  seventh  line,  pictures  a  smaller 
aperture  in  the  throat  than  the  first.     The  vocal  cords  are  brought 
near  enough  together  to  obstruct  in  some  degree  the  passage  of  air 
between  them,  giving  rise  to  a  rustling  sort  of  sound  which  is  uni- 
versally  denominated    "whisper."     This  is  the  condition   of  the 
glottis  when  we  whisper  vowel    sounds.     This    position    of  the 
throat  also  may  be  assumed  in  uttering  consonants,  thus  giving  rise 
to   the    "whispered"  consonants,    which  in  some  languages  are 
significant   elements  of  speech,  quite  distinct  in  meaning  from  the 
"breath  "  and  "  voiced  "  consonants  of  similar  formation  occurring 
in  the  same  languages. 


6l 

3.  We  have  already  become  familiar  with  the  third  symbol  in 
the  seventh  line,  as  the  representative  of  voice.     It   pictures  a  still 
smaller  aperture  in  the  throat  than  either  of  the   preceding.     The 
vocal   cords  are  placed  parallel  to  one  another,  and  the  aperture 
between  them  is  reduced  to  a  mere  slit  (pictured  by  a  straight  line). 
In  this  condition  of  the  glottis  the  passage  of  air  through  the  slit- 
like   aperture  occasions  a  vibration  of  the  vocal  cords,  producing 
voice.     This  is  the  condition  of  the  glottis  in  uttering  vocal  conso- 
nants and  vowels. 

4.  The  fourth  symbol  in  the  seventh  line,  pictures  complete 
closure  of  the  glottis.     The  vocal  cords  are  pressed  together  so  as  to 
completely  shut  the  aperture  between  them,  and  prevent  the  escape 
of  air.     This  is  the  condition  of  the  glottis  aimed  at  by  singers  in 
practicing  what  is  called  the  "coup  de  glotie."     It  also  occurs  as  an 
element  of  speech  in  certain  dialects.     For  example:    In  the  Scotch 
dialect  as  spoken  in  Glasgow,  "Throat  shut"  is  substituted  for  / 
(Point  shut)  in  such  words  as  butter,  water,  etc.     In  English  also  it 
occurs  as  an  unrecognized  element  of  speech  in  words  commencing 
with  vowels.     In  ordinary  utterance  every  syllable  really  commences 
with   a  consonant.      When   words  are   supposed  to  begin  with 
vowels,  the   "Throat  shut"  consonant  really  precedes  the  vowel 
sound,  although  it  is  not  usually  recognized  as  an  element  of  speech 
by  orthoepists.    Pronounce  with  considerable  force  the  names  of  the 
five  vowel  letters  a,  e,  i,o,  u.     A  closure  of  the  glottis  takes  place 
before  each  vowel,  excepting  the  last.     The  "Throat  shut"  conso- 
nant precedes  the  vowels  a,  e,  i,  and  o;  but  u  is  preceded  by  the 
consonant  y.      Indeed,  the  name  of  the  vowel  might  have  been 
spelled  you  without  affecting  the    pronunciation.     The    "Throat 
?hut"  consonant,  followed  by  a  forcible  emission  of  air  from  the 
lungs,  is  familiar  to  every  one  in  the  form  of  a  cough. 

The  meaning  of  the  throat  symbols  shown  in  the  seventh  line, 
is  explained  to  deaf  children  in  the  following  way : 

1.  Touch  the  throat,  and  then  hold  the  two  hands  together  palm 
to  palm,  curving  the  fingers  so  as  to  cause  the  space  between  the 
hands  to  assume  the  shape  of  the  first  symbol.     The  idea  to  be 
conveyed  is,  that  the  aperture  in  the  throat  is  somewhat  of  that 
shape,  and  very  large. 

2.  Touch  the  throat,  and  then  hold  the  hands  together  palm  to 
palm,  as  before,  but  reduce  the  space  between  the  hands  so  as  to 
cause  the  aperture  to  assume  the  shape  of  the  second  symbol.     The 


CHART    I  I  I 


3    U    n    C 

3    GJ    CO    £ 

D  u  n  c 


D  .15  n   C 

3  is 


O    0     I      I 


63 

idea  to  be  conveyed,  is  that  the  aperture  in  the  throat  is  more  con- 
tracted than  in  the  former  case. 

3.  Touch  the  throat,  and  hold  the  hands  together  palm  to  palm, 
as  before,  so  that  the  aperture  between  the  hands  is  reduced  to  a 
mere  slit.     At  the  same  time  give  a  quivering  or  trembling  motion 
to  the  hands.     The  idea  to  be  conveyed,  is  that  the  aperture  in  the 
throat  is  a  mere  slit,  and  that  a  trembling  or  quivering  motion  occurs 
in  the  throat  which  the  pupil  may  perceive  for  himself  by  placing 
his  hand  upon  the  teacher's  throat  while  the  teacher  produces  voice. 

4.  Touch  the  throat,  and  then  press  the  two  hands  together 
palm  to  palm,  with  a  shutting  action,  causing  the  hands  to  assume 
the  appearance  of  the  fourth  symbol  in  the  seventh  line. 

We  may  translate  these  gestures  into  words,  and  give  names  to 
these  symbols,  in  the  following  manner: — 

Seventh   line. — i.    Throat    open.     2.    Throat    contracted.     3. 
Throat  a-slit  (Voice).     4.  Throat  shut. 

CHART   IV. 

When  we  compare  the  symbols  shown  on  Charts  II.  and  III. 
with  those  on  Chart  V.,  we  notice  a  radical  difference  between  them. 
The  most  prominent  feature  of  the  symbols  on  Charts  II.  and  III.  is 
a  curve  of  some  sort,  whereas  the  characteristic  of  those  on  Chart 
V.  is  a  straight  line.  By  reference  to  Chart  I.  it  will  be  seen  that  a 
curve  is  indicative  of  some  part  of  the  mouth,  and  that  a  straight 
line  represents  voice.  The  symbols  on  Charts  II.  and  III.  represent 
positions  of  the  organs  that  yield  consonant,  and  those  on  Chart  V., 
positions  that  yield  vowel,  sounds.  The  generic  difference  between 
consonants  and  vowels  is  thus  portrayed  in  the  symbols.  In  conso- 
nant symbols  the  mouth  position  is  made  the  characteristic  feature 
of  the  symbol,  the  voice  where  it  occurs  being  written  subordin- 
ately  by  a  straight  line  within  the  curve.  In  vowel  symbols,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  voice  sign  is  made  the  characteristic  feature,  and  the 
mouth  position  is  represented  subordinately  by  curves,  or  dots  or 
other  marks  appended  to  the  voice  line.  Chart  IV.  is  used  for  the 
purpose  of  explaining  to  deaf  children  the  meaning  of  these  appen- 
dages. The  chief  parts  of  the  tongue  employed  in  forming  vowel 
sounds  are  the  back  and  the  front  parts  of  the  tongue.  When  we 
drawa  vertical  line  centrally  through  the  diagram  on  Chart  IV.,  we 
find  that  a  dot  or  other  mark  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  line  rests  on 
the  front  part  of  the  tongue,  whereas  a  mark  on  the  left-hand  side 
of  the  line  rests  on  the  back  of  the  tongue.  In  vowel  symbols  a 


CHART    IV- 


M  J  T\l  L  fi 


65 

mark  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  voice  line  indicates  the  front  part 
of  the  tongue,  a  mark  on  the  left  indicates  the  back  of  the  tongue, 
and  a  short  horizontal  line  drawn  across  the  vowel  stem  indicates 
that  the  lips  are  employed.  Thus  the  symbols  at  the  bottom  of 
Chart  IV.  indicate  (i)  the  voice;  (2)  the  back  of  the  tongue;  (3) 
the  back  of  the  tongue;  (4)  both  back  and  front  of  the  tongue 
used  simultaneously;  [this  is  what  my  father  terms  a  "mixed'* 
position].  (5)  Back  and  front  ["mixed"];  (6)  back  and  front 
["mixed"];  (7)  the  front  of  the  tongue;  (8)  the  front  of  the 
tongue;  (9)  the  lips. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  appendages  are  placed  sometimes 
at  the  top  of  the  vowel  stem,  sometimes  at  the  bottom,  and  some- 
times at  both  ends.  This  pictures  the  elevation  of  the  tongue  in  the 
mouth.  When  the  mark  is  at  the  top  of  the  vowel  stem  the  part 
of  the  tongue  indicated  is  placed  high  up  in  the  mouth,  leaving  a 
small  aperture  between  the  tongue  and  the  palate ;  when  the  mark 
is  at  the  bottom  the  tongue  is  low  with  a  large  aperture ;  and  when 
the  mark  is  at  both  ends  the  tongue  occupies  an  intermediate  posi- 
tion with  an  intermediate  aperture.  Reading  again  the  symbols  at 
the  bottom  of  Chart  IV.,  we  have  (i)  the  voice;  (2)  back  of  the 
tongue  high ;  (3)  back  of  the  tongue  low ;  (4)  back  and  front  both 
high  ["high  mixed"];  (5)  back  and  front  both  mid  positions  ["mid 
mixed"];  (6)  back  and  front  both  low  ["low  mixed"];  (7)  front 
low ;  (8)  front  high ;  (9)  this  symbol  means  not  only  that  the  lips 
are  used  but  that  the  aperture  between  them  is  of  a  rounded  form. 

The  deaf  child  is  taught  to  indicate  the  small  aperture  formed 
by  the  high  position  of  the  tongue,  by  holding  his  thumb  and  fore- 
finger close  together  without  touching.  (This  is  the  same  sign  for- 
merly described  as  meaning  "centre  aperture.")  The  low  tongue 
position  with  large  aperture,  is  indicated  by  holding  the  finger  and 
thumb  far  apart. ;  and  the  intermediate  position  is  represented  by  a 
half-way  position  of  the  thumb  and  forefinger.  Thus,  degrees  of 
aperture  are  indicated  by  degrees  of  separation  of  the  thumb  and 
the  forefinger. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  analyze  the  symbols  on  Chart  V. 

CHART  V.— VOWELS. 

The,  vowels  on  Chart  V.  may  be  divided  into  four  groups  of 
nine  symbols  each : — 

FIRST  GROUP. — Primary  bowels. 

Reading  downwards  we  have : — 


66 

First  line.— i.  High  Back.     2.  Mid  Back.     3.  Low  Back. 
Second  line. — i.  High  Mixed.    2.  Mid  Mixed.    3.  Low  Mixed. 
Third  line. — i.  High  Front.     2.  Mid  Front.     3.  Low  Front 

SECOND  GROUP. — Wide  bowels. 
Reading  downwards  we  have: — 

First  line. — i.  High  Back  Wide.     2.  Mid  Back  Wide.     3.  Low 

Back  Wide. 
Second  line. — i.   High  mixed  Wide.     2.  Mid  Mixed  Wide.     3. 

Low  Mixed  Wide. 

Third  line. — i.  High   Front  Wide.     2.  Mid  Front  Wide.     3. 
Low  Front  Wide. 

THIRD  GROUP. — Primary  Round  bowels. 

Reading  downwards  we  have: — 

First  line. — i.  High  Back  Round.  2.  Mid  Back  Round.  3.  Low 

Back  Round. 
Second  line. — i.  High  Mixed  Round.   2.  Mid  Mixed  Round.  3. 

Low  Mixed  Round. 
Third  Line. — i.  High  Front  Round.     2.  Mid  Front  Round.     3. 

Low  Front  Round. 

FOURTH  GROUP. — Wide  Round  Vowels. 

Reading  downwards  we  have: — 

First  line. — i.  High  Back  Wide  Round.     2.   Mid  Back  Wide 
Round.     3.  Low  Back  Wide  Round. 

Second  line. — i.  High  Mixed  Wide  Round.      2.    Mid  Mixed 
Wide  Round.     3.     Low  Mixed  Wide  Round. 

Third  line. — i.  High  Front  Wide  Round.     2.  Mid  Front  Wide 
Round.     3.   Low  Front  Wide  Round. 

Wide  vowels  differ  from  primary  vowels  by  a  slight  widening 
of  the  oral  passage;  for  example:  Contrast  the  "high  front"  vowel 
(ea  in  the  word  eat),  with  the  "high  front  wide"  vowel  (/in  the 
word  it).  The  oral  passage  for  the  latter  is  slightly  larger  than  for  ee, 
and  Prof.  Melville  Bell  believes  also  that  the  back  part  of  the  mouth, 
or  the  cavity  of  the  pharynx,  is  more  expanded  in  wide  vowels 
than  in  primary.  Widening  the  oral  passage  is  indicated  by  a  hook 
instead  of  a  dot.  Groups  111.  and  IV.  are  rounded  vowels,  that  is, 
the  passage  between  the  lips  is  of  a  rounded  form. 

Deaf  children  describe  these  symbols  by  using  the  signs  already 
mentioned  in  describing  Chart  IV.,  and  we  may  translate  their  signs 
for  the  symbols  on  Chart  V.  as  follows: 


67 

FIRST  GROUP. — Primary  bowels. 

Reading  downwards  we  have: — 

First  line. — i.    Voice,    Back  small-aperture.      2.  Voice,    Back 

mid-aperture.     3.  Voice,  Back  large-aperture. 
Second  line. — i.  Voice,  Back  small-aperture,  Front  small-aper- 
ture.    2.  Voice,  Back  mid-aperture,    Front  mid-aperture. 
3.  Voice,  Back  large-aperture,  Front  large-aperture. 
Third  line. — i.  Voice,  Front  small-aperture.     2.  Voice,   Front 
mid-aperture.     3.  Voice,  Front  large-aperture. 
SECOND  GROUP. — Wide  Vowels. 

In  teaching  deaf  children,  the  symbols  of  this  group  are  con- 
sidered as  identical  with  those  of  Group  I.,  and  are  described  in  the 
same  manner.  When  the  pupils  have  become  familiar  with  the 
analysis  of  Visible  Speech  symbols,  they  are  shown,  by  means  of 
the  thumb  and  forefinger,  that  the  position  symbolized  in  Group  II. 
have  a  slightly  wider  aperture  than  the  corresponding  positions  in 
Group  I. 

Prof.  Melville  Bell's  conception  of  the  expansion  of  the  pharynx 
during  the  utterance  of  wide  vowels,  is  a  difficult  one  to  convey  to 
deaf  children  who  know  no  language;  I  have,  therefore,  not  at- 
tempted to  do  more  than  convey  the  idea  that  the  mouth  passage 
for  wide  vowels,  is  slightly  wider  than  for  primary  vowels,  so  that 
the  primary  and  wide  symbols,  taken  together,  represent  six  degrees 
of  aperture;  for  example:  Take  the  front  vowels,  commencing 
with  the  smallest  aperture  and  ending  with  the  largest,  we  have  the 
following  series  of  apertures : — 

1.  High  Front. 

2.  High  Front  Wide. 

3.  Mid  Front. 

4.  Mid  Front  Wide. 

5.  Low  Front. 

6.  Low  Front  Wide. 

THIRD  GROUP. — Primary  Round  Vowels. 
Reading  downwards  we  have: — 

First  line. — i.  Voice,  Back  small-aperture,  Lip,  small-aperture. 
2.  Voice,  Back  mid-aperture,  Lip  mid-aperture.  3.  Voice, 
Back  large-apertuie,  Lip  large-aperture. 

Second  line. — i.  Voice,  Back  small-aperture,  Front  small-aper- 
ture, Lip  small-aperture.  2.  Voice,  Back  mid-aperture, 
Front  mid-apertuie,  Lip  mid-apertuic.  3.  Voice,  Back 
large-aperture,  Front  large-aperture.  Lip  large-aperture. 


CHART    V 


m  in 
in 

JH  Jll 

HI  HI 
Hf  }U 

tit 


69 

Third  Hne. — I.  Voice,  Front  small-aperture,  Lip  small-aperture. 
2.  Voice,  Front  mid-aperture,  Lip  mid-aperture.  3.  Voice, 
Front  large-aperture,  Lip  large-aperture. 

The  labial  apertures  described  are  of  a  rounded  form,  but  as  the 
pupils  can  see  for  themselves  the  shape  of  the  labial  apertures,  it 
has  not  been  considered  necessary  to  give  them  a  distinct  sign  for 
a  rounded  aperture;  they  simply  describe  the  size  of  aperture  by 
the  separation  of  finger  and  thumb. 

FOURTH  GROUP. — Wide  Round  bowels. 

In  teaching  deaf  children,  the  symbols  of  this  group  are  con- 
sidered as  identical  with  those  of  Group  III.,  and  are  described  in  a 
similar  manner.  The  differences  are  explained  later  on.  The  sym- 
bols of  Group  IV.  bear  the  same  relation  to  those  of  Group  III.,  that 
the  symbols  of  Group  II.  bear  to  those  of  Group  I.  (See  note  above 
relating  to  Group  II. 

CHART  VI. 

Chart  VI.  shows  the  mechanism  or  the  English  consonants  as 
explained  to  the  deaf. 
First  line: — 

(1)  "Lip  shut,"  followed  by  a  "puff  of  air."     We  have  here 
two  symbols,  the  first  of  which  (Lip  shut),  represents  p,  as  in  put, 
cup,  etc.     It  is  not  advisable  to  teach  "shut"  consonants  as  sepa- 
rate elements.     They  are  best  taught  in  connection  with  vowels. 
The  most  elementary  form  of  p  taught,  is  the  final  p,  as  in  cup, 
where  the    "Lip   shut"   position  is  followed  by  a  puff  of  air,  as 
shown  in  the  Chart. 

(2)  "Lip  shut,    Voice,"   followed  by    "voice."     The  first  of 
these  symbols  (Lip  shut,  voice),  represents  b  in  but,  cub,  etc.     This 
is  not  taught  elementarily,  but  in  connection  with  a  vowel.     The 
simplest  form  is  that  shown  in   the   Chart  where  the  "Lip  shut, 
Voice"  position  is  followed  by  an  indefinite  murmur  of  voice,  form- 
ing a  syllable  somewhat  like  bir  in  bird. 

(3)  "Lip  shut,  Voice,  Nose,"  represents  m  in  man,  come,  etc. 

(4)  "Lip  divided-aperture,"  represents  f  m  file,  luff,  etc.    The 
upper  organ  in  this  case  is  the  edge  ot  the  teeth,   instead  of  the 
upper  lip. 

Second  line: — 

(i)  "  Point  shut,"  followed  by  "  a  puff  of  air."  The  first  sym- 
bol (Point  shut),  represents  /  as  in  to,  not,  etc.  When  /  occurs  as  a 
final  letter,  as  in  not,  the  "Point  shut"  position  is  followed  by  a 
jrurf  ot  air,  as  shown  in  the  Chart. 


70 

(2)  "Point  shut,  Voice,"  followed  by  "Voice."     The    first 
symbol  (Point  shut,  Voice),  represents  d,  as  in  do,  nod,  etc.     In  the 
symbols  shown  in  the  Chart,  the  "Point  shut,  Voice"  position  is 
followed  by  an  indefinite  murmur  of  voice,  thus  representing  a  syl- 
lable somewhat  like  dir  in  dirk. 

(3)  "  Point  shut,  Voice,  Nose  "  represents  n,  as  in  no,  nun,  etc. 

(4)  "Lip    divided-aperture,    Voice"   represents  v,   as  in  vie, 
love,  etc. 

Third  line: — 

(1)  "  Back  shut"  followed  by  a  "puff  of  air."     The  first  sym- 
bol (Back  shut),  represents  h,  as  in  hey,  sick,  etc.     When  k  occurs 
as  a  final  letter,  as  in  sick,  the  "  Back  shut"  position  is  followed  by 
a  puff  of  air,  as  shown  in  the  Chart. 

(2)  "Back  shut,   Voice,"  followed  by  "Voice."     The  first  o 
these  symbols  ( Back  shut,  Voice,  represents  g,  as  in  go,  log,  etc. 
The  "  Back  shut,  Voice  "  position  is  followed  by  an  indefinite  mur- 
mur of  Voice,  forming  a  syllable  somewhat  like  gir  in  girl. 

(3)  "Back    shut,  Voice,    Nose,"    represents  ng,   as  in  lung, 
tongue,   etc. 

(4)  "  Lip  centre-aperture,  Back  centre-aperture,"  represents  wh, 
as  in  whet.     It  is  taught  to  the  deaf  as  "Back  centre-aperture" 
(German  ch),  with  the  lips  rounded  as  in  the  aft  of  whistling.     In 
obtaining  this  sound  from  a  deaf  child,  it  is  found  essential  to  direct 
attention  to  the  "  Back  centre-aperture  position." 

Fourth  line: — 

(1)  "  Point  divided-aperture,  Voice"  represents  /,  in  lutt. 

(2)  "Point  divided-aperture,  Front  centre-aperture  "  represents 
th  as  in  thin,  kith,  etc. 

(3)  "  Point  divided-aperture,  Front  centre-aperture,  Voice  "  rep- 
resents th  as  in  then,  with,  etc. 

(4)  "Lip  centre-aperture,  Back  centre-aperture,  Voice  "repre- 
sents w  in  the  word  wet.     In  teaching  the  deaf  it  is  essential  to  direct 
attention  to  the  "Back  centre-aperture"  position,  and  the  sound  is 
taught  as  identical  with  the  vowel  oo  in  pool. 

Fifth  line:— 

(1)  "Point  centre-aperture,  Front  centre-aperture"  represents 
s,  as  in  sown,  hiss,  etc. 

(2)  "Point  centre-aperture,  Front  centre-aperture,  Voice,  rep- 
resents {  in  $one,  and  s  in  his. 


CHART    VI- 


O  31  B  3 


Q3  3 

o  ai  s  P 


d)  U  uS 

u  u  n  ft 


O    <T>    U 

o 


72 

(3)  "Front  centre-aperture,    Point  centre-aperture"  represents 
sh  as  in  she,  and  5,  in  assure.     It  also  occurs  after  "  Point  shut"  in 
such  a  word  as  church  (tshurtsh). 

(4)  "Front  centre-aperture,  Point  centre-aperture,  Voice"  rep- 
resents 5  in  measure,  and  ^  in  a^ure.     It  is  heard  in  /  and  in  g  soft, 
after  "  Point  shut  Voice  "  in  such  a  word  as  judge  (dzhudzh). 
Sixth  line: — 

,  (i)  "  Front  centre-aperture  "  represents  the  sound  given  to  h  in 
hue,  for  which  we  have  no  letter.  As  it  is  the  non-vocal  form  of 
the  consonant  y,  it  may  be  represented  by  yh.  It  also  occurs  after 
non-vocal  consonants,  as  in  few  (fyhoo),  tune  (tyhoon),  cue 
( kj^oo). 

(2)  "Front  centre-aperture,  Voice"  represents^  in  the  word 
vou.     In   teaching  the  deaf  it  is  considered  as  identical  with  the 
vowel  e. 

(3)  "Point   centre-aperture."    This  sound  has  no  letter,  and 
may  be  represented  by  rh,  as  it  is  the  non-vocal  form  of  r.     The 
deaf  are   taught   that   the   letter  r  has  this  sound  when  it  comes 
after   a   non-vocal   consonant,  as   in  pry   (prhy),  try    (trhy),  cry 

( crhy)- 

(4)  "Point   centre-aperture,  Voice"    represents   r  in   such    a 
word  as  run,  also  ;  after  a  vocal  consonant,  bride,  dry,  etc. 
Seventh  line: — 

"Throat  large-aperture"  represents  h  in  such  words  heat, 
hit,  hate,  head,  hat,  hoot,  hook,  hope,  hall,  hot,  half,  hurl,  hut> 
high,  how,  hoist,  etc. 

CHART   VII. 

The  symbols  in  Chart  VII.  represent  the  positions  for  English 
vowel  sounds. 
First  line: — 

(1)  "High  Back  Wide,  Round  "  represents  the  vowel  heard  in 
the  following  words :  foot,  put,  etc. 

(2)  "High  Back,  Round"  represents  the  vowel  heard  in  pool, 
move,  through,  true,  flew,  etc. 

(3)  "High  Front  represents  the  vowel  heard  in  eel,  eat,  field, 
hey,  sei^e,  etc. 

(4)  "High   Front   Wide"    represents   the  vowel  heard  in  /'//, 
build,  etc. 

Second  line: — 

(i)  "Mid  Back,  Round,"  followed  by  a  glide  towards  "High 
Back,  Round,"  represents  the  diphthongal  vowel  heard  in  pole,  coal, 
soul,  dough,  bowl,  etc. 


(2)  "Mid  Front,"  followed  by  a  glide  towards  "High  Front," 
represents  the  diphthongal  vowel  heard  in  ale,  ail,  eight,  great,  say, 
they,  etc. 

Third  line: — 

(1)  "Low  Back  Wide,  Round"  represents  the  vowel  heard  in 
doll,  what,  etc. 

(2)  "  Low  Back,  Round "  represents  the   vowel   heard    in   all, 
paul,  paw,  thought,  etc. 

(3)  "  Low  Front "  represents   the   vowel  heard  in  shell,  head, 
said,  etc. 

(4)  ' '  Low  Front  Wide  "  represents  the  vowel  heard  in  shall,  hatt 
can,  and,  etc. 

Fourth  line: — 

(1)  "Low  Back  Wide"  represents   the    vowel    heard   in   ah, 
father,  etc. 

(2)  "Mid  Back  Wide"   represents   the   vowel   heard   in  ask, 
path,  etc. 

(3)  "Low  Mixed  Wide"  represents  the  vowel  heard   in  her, 
pearl,  girl,  fur,  etc. 

(4)  "Mid  Back"  represents   the   vowel   heard   in  gull,  come, 
rough,  etc. 

Fifth  line: — 

(1)  "Mid  Back  Wide,"   followed   by  a  glide  towards   "High 
Front,"  represents  the  diphthongal  vowel  heard  in  pile,  sleight,  buy, 
eye,  etc. 

(2)  ' '  Mid  Back  Wide, "  followed  by  a  glide  towards  "High  Back 
Round,"  represents  the  diphthongal  vowel  heard  in  cow,   bough, 
round,  etc. 

(3)  "Low  Back  Round,"  followed  by  a  glide  towards  "High 
Front,"  represents  the  diphthongal  vowel  heard  in  oil,  boy,  etc. 

The  sound  of  h  only  occurs  before  a  vowel,  and  it  is  advisable 
to  give  the  deaf  pupil  the  idea  that  there  are  as  many  sounds  of  h  as 
there  are  vowel  sounds.  Defective  pronunciation  results  from  the 
attempt  to  give  a  uniform  value  to  the  sound.  The  deaf  pupil  is 
taught  that  the  mouth  position  for  h  is  always  the  same  as  that  of 
the  succeeding  vowel;  in  faft,  that  h  is  the  breath  form  of  the 
succeeding  vowel.  For  example :  Contrast  h  in  he,  with  that  in 


CHART    VII 


u  r  r 


i  t  I  I 
Jill 
]f 


75 

who  (hoo).  In  the  former  case  the  mouth  position  lor  h  is  the 
same  as  that  for  the  vowel  ee,  in  the  latter  it  is  the  same  as  that  for 
the  vowel  oo. 

Do  you  describe  the  word  "Mixed?" 

We  do  not  use  the  word  "Mixed"  in  teaching  the  deaf,  but 
describe  in  detail  the  positions  that  are  mixed.  Thus,  we  describe 
my  father's  "  Lip-mixed  "  consonant  as  "Lip  centre-aperture,  Back 
centre-aperture." 

What  do  you  mean  by  "divided-aperture?" 

An  aperture  divided  in  the  middle  so  as  to  leave  two  orifices. 
For  example:  In  assuming  the  position  for  the  letter  /  (CO),  the  point 
of  the  tongue  is  placed  against  the  upper  gum,  and  the  air  passes 
out  over  both  sides  of  the  tongue. 

Can  a  person  realize  by  any  feeling  the  muscular  condition 
represented  by  your  symbols? 

Certainly.  Familiarity  with  the  organs  through  the  use  of  a 
mirror  leads  to  a  perception  of  muscular  feeling  of  the  positions 
assumed  by  the  vocal  organs.  Indeed,  in  talking  we  are  all  guided 
more  or  less  by  muscular  feeling.  For  example,  we  can  talk  with- 
out making  any  noise  so  that  a  deaf  pupil  can  understand  what  we 
say  by  watching  the  mouth.  How  do  we  know  that  our  vocal 
organs  are  in  the  correct  position  when  we  make  no  sound?  Surely 
by  muscular  feeling.  The  deaf  child  also,  through  training,  becomes 
conscious  of  the  movements  of  his  vocal  organs  and  can  tell  by 
muscular  feeling  exactly  what  he  does. 

Why  do  you  begin  with  lip  positions  instead  of  back  positions? 

The  lip  positions  are  the  most  visible.  The  deaf  child  under- 
stands what  the  symbols  mean  when  applied  to  the  lips,  because  he 
can  see  the  positions  assumed.  This  knowledge  he  applies  to  the 
interior  positions  that  cannot  be  so  easily  seen. 

Now  in  teaching  a  deaf  child  you  present  to  him  the  symbol 
for  some  difficult  sound.  If  he  has  been  taught  to  analyze  the  sym- 
bols in  the  manner  shown,  the  symbol  conveys  to  his  mind  a 
direction  what  to  do  with  his  mouth.  That  is  what  your  pupil  has 
to  aim  at,  but  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred  he  may  not 
get  it,  at  least  at  the  first  shot.  Now  what  are  you  going  to  do? 
Are  you  going  to  say  "No,  no!  that's  not  right.  Try  again?"  Let 
him  try  once  more  and  the  chances  are  that  he  fails  again  to  give 
the  sound  intended.  The  No-No  method  only  aggravates  the 
difficulty  by  discouraging  the  pupil  and  disgusting  him  with 
articulation. 


76 

Learning  to  speak  is  like  learning  to  shoot.  Now,  suppose  you 
aim  at  a  target  for  the  first  time,  and  fail  to  hit  it,  and  you  are 
simply  told  "No,  no;  that's  not  right.  Try  again."  Well,  suppose 
you  do  try  again.  The  chances  are  that  you  fail,  and  if  you  were 
simply  told  once  more  that  you  didn't  hit  the  bull's  eye,  you  are  no 
further  advanced  than  you  were  before.  That's  not  the  way  to 
learn  to  shoot.  You  must  know  where  your  bullet  struck  when  you 
failed,  so  as  to  see  the  relation  between  the  point  struck  and  the 
point  you  intended  to  hit.  The  knowledge  of  that  relation  will 
guide  your  next  shot.  For  example:  If  you  know  that  you  hit  too 
far  to  the  right,  why  your  next  shot  is  aimed  more  to  the  left,  and 
perhaps  flies  clear  of  the  target  on  the  other  side.  If,  then,  you  are 
told  the  result  of  this  shot  also,  you  make  due  allowances  the  next 
time  you  try.  You  may  fail  a  hundred  times.  Now  you  go  a  little 
to  the  right,  now  a  little  to  the  left,  sometimes  too  high,  sometimes 
too  low ;  but  your  knowledge  of  the  effect  of  each  shot  causes  you 
to  make  unconscious  allowances,  so  that,  little  by  little,  you  come 
nearer  the  bull's  eye  until  at  last  you  hit  it.  When  you  can  hit  the 
bull's  eye  every  time,  you  have  mastered  your  instrument — the  gun — 
and  can  hit  any  other  bull's  eye  with  equal  ease. 

The  No-No  method,  besides  discouraging  the  beginner  fails  to 
give  the  very  information  that  is  necessary  for  his  progress.  The 
deaf  child  must  know  what  he  did  when  he  failed,  and  the  relation 
of  the  position  struck  to  the  bull's  eye.  The  knowledge  of  that 
relation  will  guide  him  in  his  next  attempt.  For  example:  If  he 
knows  that  his  tongue  was  too  far  forward  in  the  mouth,  in  his 
next  attempt  he  aims  at  having  his  tongue  further  back  and  probably 
gets  too  far  in  that  direction.  If,  then,  he  is  told  the  result  of  this 
attempt  also,  he  makes  due  allowances  the  next  time  he  tries.  He 
may  fail  a  hundred  times.  Now  the  position  may  be  a  little  too  far 
forward,  now  a  little  too  far  back,  or  the  tongue  may  be  too  high  or 
too  low,  but  his  knowledge  of  the  effect  of  each  effort  causes  him 
to  approach  more  and  more  closely  to  the  exact  position  desired,  till 
at  last  he  gets  it.  The  time  spent  in  studying  and  representing  the 
incorrect  positions  is  not  wasted,  for  it  gives  the  pupil  mastery  over 
the  instrument  of  speech  itself,  and  the  struggle  to  get  exactitude  of 
position  with  one  difficult  sound  gives  him  power  to  get  any  other, 
just  as  the  ability  to  hit  one  bull's  eye  qualifies  a  man  to  shoot  at 
any  mark. 


77 

I  will  now  answer  some  of  the  questions  that  have  been  pro- 
pounded to  me. 

The  first  question  is :  What  is  accent? 

I  have  found  in  my  past  experience  that  accent  is  length.  At 
least  that  we  get  a  more  natural  effect  from  a  deaf  child  if  we  give 
him  the  idea  of  making  the  accented  syllable  longer  than  the  others 
rather  than  louder.  The  attempt  to  make  the  accented  syllables 
louder  often  leads  to  a  jerky  utterance  very  unlike  the  effect  we  desire. 

To  make  my  meaning  clear  I  will  say  that  1  do  not  think 
that  we  give  a  jerk  of  the  abdominal  muscles  for  every  accented 
syllable,  any  more  than  the  piper  gives  a  jerk  of  the  arm  to  mark 
the  accented  notes.  The  pressure  upon  the  bag  is  continuous 
and  the  rhythm  of  the  music  is  brought  out  by  the  dif- 
fering durations  of  the  notes.  Of  course  the  music  may  be 
made  louder  or  softer  by  increasing  or  diminishing  the  pressure 
upon  the  bag,  but  this  effect  corresponds  more  to  emphasis  than 
to  accent. 

The  fad  that  the  effect  of  accent  can -be  produced  by  length- 
ening the  duration  of  a  syllable,  without  any  change  in  the  loud- 
ness  or  volume  of  .the  voice  may  be  demonstrated  by  a  simple 
experiment 

Let  a  deaf  child  prolong  the  voice  while  you  manipulate  his 
lips  so  as  to  produce  91 91 91  91,  etc.  (Mama,  mama,  etc.)  Now, 
although  he  makes  no  variation  in  the  loudness  of  his  voice  you 
can  with  your  fingers  produce  the  effect  of  accent  by  prolonging 
the  syllable  you  desire  to  bring  out.  For  example:  If  you  prolong 
the  open  position  you  can  make  him  say  919]  9193,  etc.  (Mama, 
pronounced  in  the  English  way  with  the  accent  on  the  second  syl- 
Iable)or939|  9]9l,etc.,  with  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable,  as  is 
very  commonly  heard  in  America. 

"But,"  you  may  ask,  "May  not  syllables  containing  short 
vowels  be  accented,  and  how  can  you  prolong  the  syllable  if  the 
vowel  is  short?" 

Certainly,  syllables  of  this  kind  can  be  accented.  In  such  cases 
you  do  not  prolong  the  vowel  but  the  succeeding  consonant.  For 
example:  You  can  by  manipulation  cause  your  pupil  to  say  9I9]9 
9I9]9,  etc.,  (mamum,  mamum,  etc.),  by  prolonging  the  closed 
position  of  the  lips  instead  of  the  open. 

There  is  a  great  Foint  here.  Short  vowels  are  succeeded  by 
long  consonants;  for  example:  the  consonant  position  is  retained 


78 

for  a  much  longer  time  in  such  words  as  come,  cuff,  it,  sin,  look, 
than  in  such  words  as,  calm,  calf,  eat,  seen,  Luke.  You  can  dem- 
onstrate this  prolongation  of  the  consonant  position  by  emphasizing 
with  great  force  the  word  "  not  "  in  the  familiar  quotation,  "To  be, 
or  NOT  to  be;  that  is  the  question."  The  hiatus  caused  by 
the  prolongation  of  the  shut  position  (D )  of  the  /  is  so  great  as  to 
occasion  a  perceptible  silence  in  the  midst  of  the  sentence. 

Let  your  pupils  pronounce  with  precision  the  accented  syllables 
of  words  and  slur  over  the  others,  articulating  them  rapidly,  with 
indefinite  vowels,  and  the  effect  will  be  much  more  natural  than  a 
precise  articulation  of  every  syllable  with  loudness  for  accent. 

Miss  McCowEN:  Have  you  ever  thought  of  there  being  a  differ- 
ence in  pitch  ? 

DR.  BELL:  I  don't  see  how  that  could  come  into  the  case.  In 
natural  speech  the  pitch  of  the  voice  is  constantly  varied  in  both 
accented  and  unaccented  syllables.  You  can  distinguish  the  element 
of  accent  even  though  the  voice  is  on  a  monotone  and  without 
variation  of  loudness. 

The  next  question  on  my  list  is:  "Please  imitate  Helen  Keller's 
voice." 

I  am  sorry  I  have  not  a  sufficiently  distinct  recollection  to  do 
that.  Perhaps  Miss  Fuller  can. 

Miss  FULLER:    I  don't  think  I  can. 

DR.  BELL:  I  will  say  it  was  distinct  and  perfectly  intelligible  to 
persons  not  accustomed  to  the  deaf. 

The  next  question  on  my  list  is:  "How  would  you  teach  r 
and/?" 

1  have  experienced  so  little  difficulty  in  teaching  r  and  /(Ci> 
and  CO)  that  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  very  defective  manner  in 
which  these  sounds  are  sometimes  given  by  deaf  children  must  be 
due  to  the  mode  of  teaching.  I  always  commence  with  the  non- 
vocal  forms  O  and  CO.  I  would  recommend  you  to  adopt  this  plan 
generally  in  dealing  with  consonants  as  the  non-vocal  forms  are 
usually  more  easily  acquired  than  the  others.  It  is  especially  advis- 
able in  the  case  of  r  and  /,  as  you  then  avoid  the  common  fault  of 
too  large  aperture.  When  the  non-vocal  forms  have  been  mastered, 
the  vocal  forms  follow  as  a  matter  of  course  by  the  addition  of  voice 

In  forming  U  (non-vocal  r)  the  point  of  the  tongue  is  applied 
to  the  upper  gum  just  at  the  part  where  the  palate  begins  to  arch, 
and  the  breath  is  allowed  to  escape  through  a  central  aperture.  Deaf 


79 

children  acquire  the  sound  very  readily  by  imitation,  as  the  whole 
mechanism  can  be  seen  in  a  mirror.  In  any  case  of  difficulty  I 
manipulate  the  sound  from  &5  (th)  or  V  (5)  in  the  manner  described 
to  you  the  other  day.  It  is  quite  unnecessary  to  attempt  a  "trill" 
that  is,  to  cause  a  vibration  or  trembling  of  the  point  of  the  tongue. 
Such  an  effe<5l  is  un-English. 

The  defective  variety  of  r  most  commonly  met  with  results 
from  placing  the  point  of  the  tongue  too  far  back  in  the  mouth.  For 
example:  It  is  often  applied  to  the  top  of  the  hard  palate  (U°) ;  and 
in  some  cases  it  is  coiled  up  within  the  mouth  so  as  to  approximate 
the  soft  palate  (Ci)c). 

The  defective  form  of  /  so  common  in  schools  for  the  deaf 
results  from  an  exaggerated  narrowing  of  the  tongue  (COv)  (too  large 
aperture)  and  from  opening  the  jaws  too  widely. 

Sometimes  the  tip  of  the  tongue  is  placed  against  the  upper 
teeth  and  the  under  side  of  the  tongue  is  actually  protruded  from  the 
mouth. 

The  correct  position  for  CO  (/)  is  so  nearly  the  same  as  that  for 
CO  (#)  that  the  deaf  have  difficulty  in  distinguishing  one  from  the 
other  by  the  eye.  This  leads  some  children  to  substitute  CD  for  CO  (n 
for  /). 

In  forming  CO  (/),  the  point  of  the  tongue  should  be  placed 
against  the  upper  gum,  and  air  allowed  to  escape  through  two  side 
apertures.  The  lingual  position  for  CD  (n)  is  the  same,  excepting 
that  the  two  side  apertures  are  closed.  Thus,  the  tongue  appears 
slightly  broader  for  CO  (n)  than  for  CO  (/).  The  exaggerated  narrow- 
ing of  the  tongue  so  commonly  associated  with  /  results  in  side 
apertures  that  are  much  too  large.  This  defeft  is  avoided,  if  you 
commence  by  teaching  the  sound  non-vocally  (CO)  with  quite  small 
side  apertures.  Even  pupils  who  give  n  for  /  readily  acquire  the 
non-vocal  form  (CO).  After  this  has  once  been  mastered,  the  vocal 
form  follows  as  a  matter  of  course  by  the  addition  of  voice  (CO). 

Even  though  0)  and  CO  (r  and  /)  may  be  given  corredly  as  ele- 
mentary sounds,  deaf  children  produce  an  effecT:  that  is  not  heard  in 
ordinary  utterance  when  they  attempt  to  give  these  sounds  after 
non-vocal  consonants.  Thus,  DCi)I  (tree),  QCOlD>  (sleep),  etc., 
sound  as  if  there  were  two  syllables  in  each  word,  and  if  any  defedl 
of  combination  exist,  the  vocality  of  the  r  or  /  causes  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  voice  glide  after  the  non-vocal  consonant.  Thus, 
Ql(OlD>  (turee,  suleep),  etc. 


8o 

I  have  found  that  deaf  children  give  the  proper  vernacular  effect 
when  they  attempt  to  make  the  sounds  non-vocally.  Thus,  OOf, 
UCOfD>  (tree,  sleep).  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  sounds  J3  and 
fl)  (w  and  y)  after  non-vocal  consonants ;  for  example,  when  deaf 
children  attempt  to  say  O&IC0OI,  Oftl  (twenty,  cue,,/.  e.t  kyou), 
they  are  apt  to  give  OllCCOf,  dfl  (too-enty,  kee-oo),  although  the 
distinction  between  the  consonant  and  vowel  forms  S3— i  and  ft— £ 
(w-oo  and  y-ee)  may  have  been  fully  explained  to  them.  The  ver- 
nacular effect,  however,  is  at  once  produced  when  they  try  to  give 
the  sound  non-vocally,  JO  and  O  (wh,  yh).  For  example,  DtOCCCDf 
and  QOl  (twh-enty  and  k-hue).  I  would  adopt  the  rule  of  teach- 
ing deaf  children  to  give  r,  I,  w,  and  y  without  voice  (U,  CO,  JO,  and 
O),  where  they  follow  non-vocal  consonants  in  the  same  syllable, 
for  example,  in  such  words  as  pry,  try,  cry,  try,  thrice,  shrine;  play 
clay,  flay,  slay;  twin,  queen,  swim;  pew,  tune,  cute,  few,  thews, 
sue. 

Vocal  consonants,  when  they  occur  as  final  elements,  are  pro- 
nounced by  the  deaf  in  such  a  manner  as  to  offend  the  ordinary  ear, 
and  I  think  it  worth  while,  therefore,  to  direct  your  attention  to  a 
simple  expedient  by  which  the  effect  may  be  much  improved.  For 
example : — take  such  words  as  love,  nose,  smooth,  rub,  good,  bag, 
etc.,  when  they  occur  by  themselves  or  at  the  end  of  a  phrase. 

The  vocality  of  the  last  element  produces  an  effect  that  is  at 
once  recognized  as  peculiar.  The  effect  is  much  improved  when 
the  pupil  is  taught  to  finish  off  with  the  non-vocal  form  of  the  con- 
sonant softly  uttered.  Thus  C0]33>  (luvf)  CC}l?i5U>  (noze)  U9l&J£5> 
(smoodhth)  0>33D>  (rubp)Ql5JD>(goodt)  01QQ>  (bagk),  etc. 

When  two  vocal  consonants  end  the  last  syllable  uttered,  it  is 
better  to  give  the  last  consonant  non-vocally.  Thus :  15JQ>,  (edge), 
instead  of  IQ®;  (edsh,  instead  of  edzh);  ODsy^,  instead  of  Q]32tf, 
(duvs  instead  of  duvz),  etc.  When  such  words  occur  in  the  middle 
of  a  phrase  the  latter  pronunciation  is  correct. 

Miss  BARTON  :    How  do  you  get  pupils  to  give  long  e  easily  ? 

DR.  BELL:  I  always  teach  first  the  non- vocal  form  O  (h  in 
hue).  If  a  pupil  does  not  give  this  readily,  I  manipulate  it  from  U 
(th)  or  £3  (s)  in  the  manner  I  have  already  described.  When  O  has 
been  well  fixed — that  is,  when  a  pupil  can  give  it  readily  without 
manipulation,  I  add  voice. 

At  once  we  get  I  (ee)  or,  what  is  practically  the  same  thing, 


8i 

The  next  question  on  my  list  is  this: — 
"  Please  demonstrate  the  teaching  of  tn  in  cotton." 
In  this  word,  (QJ-OCD)  the  sound  of  n  alone  (CD)  constitutes  a 
distinct  syllable.  Indeed  &  (m)  CD  (;/)  &  (ng)  and  also  CO  (/,)  when 
prolonged,  are  in  reality  vowels.  That  is,  the  aperture  through 
which  the  voice  is  passed  is  so  large  as  to  be  non-obstru&ive.  We 
fail  to  hear  any  rustling  or  hissing  or  puffing  sound  from  the  mouth 
position.  The  fricative  noise  which  is  characteristic  of  a  consonant 
is  not  heard  excepting  at  the  moment  of  the  relinquishment  of  the 
position.  These  sounds  can  be  used  both  as  consonants  and  vow- 
els. If  the  positions  are  assumed  only  momentarily  so  that  the 
sound  of  the  removal  of  the  position  is  the  chief  effeft  perceived, 
then  we  recognize  the  sounds  as  consonant  elements  of  speech.  If 
on  the  other  hand  the  chief  effect  perceived  is  due  to  the  retention 
of  the  position,  and  not  to  its  removal,  we  hear  only  a  quality  of 
voice,  that  is,  a  vowel  sound,  and  this  sound  may  constitute  a  dis- 
tinct syllable  by  itself. 

In  the  English  language  CD  (n)  and  CO  (/)  are  often  employed  as 
vowels.  &  (m)  is  more  rarely  used,  €5  (ng)  not  at  all.  A  vowelized 
Q  (m)  is  not  usually  recognized  as  constituting  a  distinct  syllable  by 
itself,  but  surely  such  words  as  Ci)l£5B  (rhythm)  and  Uf&SB  (schism) 
are  as  really  dis-syllabic  as  IOCS  (eaten),  QJOCvJ  (cotton),  or  IDCO 
(apple).  The  termination,  "ful,"  which  is  so  often  murdered  by 
deaf  children  is  pronounced  by  most  people  simply  as  3CO  (fl).  For 
example:  J3CO  (awfl),  00)10330)  (dreadful),  0ttlOl3CO  (beautiful), 
etc.  Surely  the  word  J3CO  (awfl)  would  be  more  acceptable  to 
ordinary  ears  than  the  }3l3*ICO  pronunciation  commonly  heard  from 
the  deaf. 

It  is  difficult  to  teach  the  sound  of  tn  in  such  a  word  as  cotton 
without  the  use  of  symbols.  The  pupil  associates  the  single  char- 
after  /  with  a  double  aftion  of  the  organs  (O>).  Hence,  he  tries 
to  give  this  double  action  to  the  /  in  cotton ;  that  is,  O>CD  for  OCD. 
The  vocality  of  the  CD  (n),  however,  usually  causes  him  to  fail  in  his 
aim,  so  that  the  puff  of  air  (>)  is  vocalized  (I).  Thus,  QJOICD.  In 
our  pronunciation  of  the  word  the  point  of  the  tongue  is  not 
removed  from  the  upper  gum  between  the  positions  for  /  and  n, 
CIJOCD.  The  point-shut  position  is  common  to  the  two  sounds  OCD. 
The  soft  palate  is  closed  against  the  back  of  the  pharynx  (Q)  during 
the  production  of  the  /  and  drops  (C)  during  the  production  of  the 


82 


n  (see  dotted  lines  in  Figure   16),  thus  allowing  the  voice  to  pass 
through  the  nose. 


Fig.  16.     Aftion  of  the  soft  palate  in  forming  //;   (DCC^    in  "cotton." 

First  Position.  D+O=O 

Second  Position. 


Repeat  the  sound  of  in  a  number  of  times  without  voice 
(OC2OC3OC3,  etc.),  and  you  will  feel  that  the  whole  action  consists  in 
the  alternate  elevation  and  depression  of  the  soft  palate  [QCDC,  etc]. 
The  point  of  the  tongue  is  not  moved  at  all,  but  is  shut  continuously 
against  the  upper  gum.  OC3OC5OCf=D+(acacac:,  etc.). 

There  is  only  one  point-shut  position.  Now,  such  an  action 
presents  no  difficulty  to  a  child  who  has  been  taught  to  elevate  and 
depress  his  soft  palate  at  will,  but  does  present  enormous  difficulties 
to  one  who  has  not,  for  the  whole  action  is  invisible.  All  you  can 
do  in  such  a  case  is  to  use  symbols,  and  show  that  the  shut-position 
(O)  of  /  (D>)  is  alone  assumed,  followed  by  CD  («)  without  moving 
the  tongue.  The  combinations  DG3  (In),  CDD>  (;//),  0C3  (//«),  G3GJ> 
(nd),  DHDO>  (tut),  and  Q5CC0>  (dnd),  occur  in  English  words,  some 
of  them  quite  frequently ;  and  I  think  therefore  that  deaf  children 
should  be  taught  to  control  the  movement  of  the  soft  palate  so  as  to 
be  able  to  produce  these  combinations  at  will.  For  example:  The 
words:  IOCD  (eaten),  tCOD>  (ant),  Bl<DB  (madden),  ICC0>  (and), 
(patent),  and  9IQ5C00>  (maddened),  involve  these  actions. 

The  word  "abandoned,"  as  pronounced  by  some  people 
actually  involves  four  point-shut  sounds  successively 
uttered,  or  rather  one  point-shut  position,  and  four  successive  posi- 
tions of  the  soft  palate.  CDOCtJ0=Q+(CDCD>). 

In  difficult  cases  I  would  recommend  the  following  plan :    Give 


83 

your  pupil  a  hand  mirror  and  teach  him  to  elevate  and  depress  his 
soft  palate  (QCQC,  etc.),  in  the  manner  described  in  rny  second 
lecture. 

When  he  can  do  this  at  will  without  looking  in  the  mirror,  ask 
him  to  repeat  the  exercise  with  his  lips  shut  all  the  time.  This 
results  in  D+(DEaCDC,  etc.)=DODDDQ,  etc. 

Then  repeat  the  exercise  with  the  point  of  the  tongue  shut 
against  the  upper  gum : 

O+(aCDE:aC,  etc.,)=OC3OC2OO,  etc. 

Then  with  the  back  of  the  tongue  shut  against  the  soft  palate: 

a+(acacQE)=aaaGaG,  etc. 

Then  let  him  repeat  these  exercises  with  the  voice  sounded 
intermittently  through  the  nose : 

D9DS,  etc.  (pm,  pm,  etc.) 
OCDOtf,  etc.  (tn,  tn,  etc.) 
Oeae,  etc.  (kng,  kng,  etc.) 
Then  with  the  voice  continuously  sounded: 
QBBB,  etc.   (bm,  bm,  etc.) 
QQ5Q503,  etc.  (dn,  dn,  etc.) 
aeae,  etc.  (gng,  gng,  etc.) 

If  a  pupil  is  taught  to  control  the  movement  of  his  soft  palate 
at  will,  such  combinations  as  that  of  tn  in  cotton  will  present  no 
difficulty. 

[Dr.  Bell  here  illustrated  his  method  with  Mr.Kiesel]. 


CONSONANTS. 

I  propose  in  my  lecture  to-day  to  deal  with  the  mechanism  of 
speech.  In  my  demonstrations  I  shall  make  use  of  Monroe's  school- 
room charts,  "Sounds  Of  The  English  Language,"  which  contain 
good  diagrams  of  the  positions  of  the  vocal  organs  in  uttering 
English  sounds.  As  you  are  professionally  familiar  with  the  subject 
it  will  be  unnecessary  for  me  to  describe  the  correct  positions  unless 
in  answer  to  questions.  I  shall  therefore  consider  the  mechanism 
of  common  defects.  We  shall  consider  first  the  defects  of  shut 
consonants. 

DEFECTS   OF  SHUT   CONSONANTS. 

The  labial  letters,  p,  b,  m,  are  not  liable  to  errors  of  position. 
In  forming  /,  d,  n,  slight  changes  of  position  do  not  offend  the 
ordinary  ear  and  may  therefore  be  passed  lightly  by.  The  point  of 
the  tongue  should  be  placed  against  the  upper  gum,  but  it  may  be 
shut  against  the  teeth,  even  to  the  th  position  without  producing  a 
defect  sufficient  to  attract  the  attention  of  any  one  but  an  articulation 
teacher.  In  forming  k,  g,  ng,  also,  considerable  latitude  may  be 
allowed  so  long  as  the  position  is  too  far  forward.  When  it  is  too  far 
back  the  defect  at  once  attracts  attention,  and  should  be  corrected. 
If  you  try  to  form  a  k,  with  your  mouth  opened  as  widely  as  pos- 
sible, you  will  find  it  very  difficult  to  raise  the  back  of  the  tongue 
into  contact  with  the  soft  palate.  It  is  much  more  easy  to  produce 
the  shutting  action  lower  down  by  the  approximation  of  the  base  of 
the  tongue  to  the  back  of  the  pharynx.  This  produces  the  defective 
sound  of  h  to  which  I  have  alluded  (Q<),  a  sound  quite  commonly 
given  by  deaf  children.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  defect  is  due 
to  the  mode  of  teaching.  The  teacher  is  very  apt  to  open  her  mouth 
as  widely  as  possible  to  show  her  pupils  the  position  of  the  tongue. 
They  imitate  the  action,  and  this  naturally  leads  them  to  give  too 

84 


85 

low  a  position.  It  is  very  difficult  to  correct  a  position  that  is  too 
far  back.  I  think  the  best  way  is  to  teach  the  sound  anew.  Take 
a  position  which  is  too  far  forward,  for  example,  /  (D),  then  manip- 
ulate the  tongue.  The  same  remarks,  of  course,  apply  to  g  (€3). 

The  shut  consonants,  though  generally  pronounced  well  by  deaf 
children,  are  liable  to  a  defect  of  a  very  extraordinary  nature.  In 
nearly  every  school  for  the  deaf  some  pupils  may  be  found  who 
give  clicks  in  place  of  these  consonants.  For  example :  p  will  be 
pronounced  like  the  sound  of  a  kiss,  and  /  like  the  clicking  sound 
we  make  as  a  sign  of  impatience,  or  like  the  cluck  with  which  we 
hurry  up  a  horse.  I  may  not  be  able  to  tell  you  exactly  what  to  do, 
but  of  one  thing  you  may  be  sure, — the  first  step  in  the  correction 
of  a  defect  is  to  understand  the  mechanism  of  the  defective  sound. 
"Knowledge  is  power,"  and  when  we  know  the  nature  of  a  defect, 
ingenuity  will  find  a  remedy. 

The  first  step  then  is  to  study  the  mechanism  of  the  defective 
sound.  How  are  you  to  investigate  it  ?  Imitate  the  defective  sound 
yourself,  and  then  study  your  own  vocal  organs. 

Your  pupil,  we  shall  suppose,  gives  a  kiss  instead  of  the  sound 
of  p.  Let  us  study  the  mechanism  together. 

When  the  lips  are  opened  you  observe  that  air  goes  into  the 
mouth  instead  of  coming  out.  Let  us  examine  into  the  cause. 

But  first,  let  us  express  by  means  of  symbols  and  diagrams  the 
condition  of  our  knowledge  at  each  stage  of  the  investigation,  so 
f  hat  we  may  realize  as  clearly  as  possible  what  we  are  about. 


Fig.  ii. 

First  Position.  Second   Position. 

D< 


The  first  diagram  in  Fig.  n,  illustrates  the  closure  of  the  lips 
(D).  The  second  shows,  by  means  of  an  arrow-head,  the  direction 
of  the  air  when  the  lips  are  opened  (<). 

Can  it  be  that  the  pupil  makes  an  effort  of  inspiration  while  he 
is  trying  to  say  p  ?  How  can  we  satisfy  ourselves  on  this  point  ? 


86 


Shut  your  lips  then  open  them  with  an  effort  of  inspiration.  Thus, 
(D<).  At  once  you  notice  that  the  effect  is  very  different  from  the 
sound  of  a  kiss.  In  forming  the  kiss,  then,  the  air  does  not  enter 
the  lungs  (<),  but  only  goes  into  the  mouth  as  far  as  some  point  [<] 
yet  to  be  determined,  [The  symbol  D<  now  becomes  D<]. 

Repeat  the  kissing  sound  many  times — D<  D<  D<,  etc., — while 
you  observe  what  you  do  with  your  lungs.  You  will  find  that  you 
can  go  on  kissing  for  any  length  of  time  without  stopping  to  take 
breath.  You  can  breathe  freely  through  the  nose. 

What  conclusion  can  we  draw  from  this  ?  [i]  The  soft  palate 
is  depressed  [)]. 

[2]  You  can  breathe  freely  through  the  nose  thus  showing  that 
no  constriction  exists  between  the  soft  palate  and  the  lungs. 

Let  us  express  this  knowledge  upon  the  diagrams  we  have 
made.  Figure  1 1  now  becomes  Figure  12,  and  the  symbol  D< 
becomes  1  -f-  [D<]. 


,  c-4^ 


Fig.   12. 


First  Position. 


Second  Position. 


[I  +  D] 


Is  anything  further  to  be  discovered  ?  Think  for  one  moment. 
If  no  other  constriction  exists  than  is  shown  on  the  diagram,  then 
there  must  be  an  open  passage-way  into  the  mouth  from  the  lungs, 
and  air  should  escape  through  the  mouth  as  well  as  through  the  nose. 
Does  it  do  so  ?  We  know  it  does  not,  for  when  the  lips  are  opened 
air  enters  the  mouth  in  just  the  opposite  direction  [<  and  not  >]. 
The  passage-way,  then,  must  be  closed  somewhere  between  the 
soft  palate  and  the  lips.  What  organs  are  there  in  the  mouth  by 


87 


which  the  closure  could  be  effected  ?  We  are  limited  in  our  choice 
to  the  point  of  the  tongue,  the  "top"  or  "front"  of  the  tongue, 
the  back  of  the  tongue,  or  to  intermediate  parts. 

If  you  repeat  the  sound  of  a  kiss,  I  think  you  will  feel  that  the 
concealed  shut  position  must  be  pretty  far  back  in  the  mouth.  Cer- 
tainly the  point  of  the  tongue  is  not  involved,  and  we  are  limited 
therefore,  to  the  top  or  back  of  the  tongue,  with  the  probabilities  in 
favor  of  the  back.  How  can  you  decide  the  matter  ?  Make  a 
hypothesis,  and  then  experiment  upon  your  mouth  to  test  the  truth 
of  your  assumption.  For  example  :  Assume  that  the  back  of  the 
tongue  is  shut  against  the  soft  palate  (Q).  Fill  in  this  position  upon 
the  diagrams.  Figure  12  now  becomes  Figure  13,  and  the  expres- 
sion I  -f-  (D<)  becomes  G  +  (D<) 


Cd    &4{R 


Fig.   13. 
First  Position.  Second  Position. 

(j+d  +  D)    (J  +  a  +  «)  =  G  +  (D«) 

Now  study  the  diagrams  and  the  symbols  and  try  to  establish 
some  relation  between  the  hypothetical  position  (G)  and  some  sound 
of  known  formation.  Then  experiment  upon  the  mouth  to  see  if 
that  relation  holds  good. 

Now  we  know  that  G  -f- 1  =  &  (ng). 

If  then  your  hypothetical  position   (G)  is  correct,  you  should 
get  G  (ng),  by  adding  voice  to  a  kiss.     Test  the  matter.     Sound  the 
voice  continuously  while  you  repeat  the  sound  of  a  kiss : — 
i+G+(D<  D<D<etc.)  =  G+(D<D<  D<  etc). 

You  at  once  recognize  the  familiar  effect  G  (ng),  continuously 
sounded — like  the  drone  of  a  bagpipe — accompanied  by  the  equally 
familiar  sound  of  kissing.  This  is  proof  that  your  assumption  is 
correct. 


88 


A  kiss=- 

The  defect,  then,  consists  in  the  assumption   of  the  ng  position 
without  voice  (G)  while  the  pupil  is  trying  to  say  D>  (/>). 

But  why  does  the  air  go  into  the  mouth  when  the  lips  are 
opened  ?  The  fact  indicates  that  a  partial  vacuum  exists  there.  This 
means  that  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  had  been  enlarged  while  the 
shut  positions  were  assumed,  thus  causing  rarefaction  of  the  con- 
tained air.  The  tongue,  therefore,  must  have  been  moved  before 


i+d+I+D 
1+Q+l+D 

I+Q+I 


14-a+i+D 
t+a+t+D 


or  G+  (D<) 


orD+(d<) 


the  lips  were  opened.  Any  movement  of  the  tongue  that  will  en- 
large the  cavity,  will  produce  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  mouth,  and 
thus  lead  to  the  production  of  the  sound.  The  symbol  <  (air  going 
into  a  cavity)  expresses  the  effect  independently  of  the  exact 


positions  assumed.  Hence:  G-f-  (D<),  is  a  general  expression  and 
covers  any  change  of  position  inside  the  mouth  that  will  produce  a 
partial  vacuum  there. 

As  a  clear  understanding  of  the  cause  of  the  click  effect  in  this 
case  will  throw  light  upon  the  nature  of  clicks  in  general,  it  may 
be  well  to  show  some  specific  movement  of  the  tongue  that  will 
produce  the  effect.  For  example:  Suppose  that  the  front  of  the 
tongue  is  elevated  in  the  position  for  e  in  eel  thus  f  (high  front) 
when  the  shut  positions  are  assumed.  (See  Fig.  14).  If  then  the 
front  of  the  tongue  is  lowered  into  the  position  for  e  in  pet  (as 
shown  by  a  dotted  line  in  Fig.  14)  thus  I  (low  front),  without 
changing  the  other  positions,  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  is  enlarged. 
As  a  partial  vacuum  then  exists,  air  will  rush  in  if  an  opening  is 
made  anywhere.  For  example: — 

1.  If  you  keep  the  back  of  the  tongue  closed  against  the  soft 
palate  and  open  the  lips,  air  will  rush  in  between  the  lips ;  Q  -f- 
(D«). 

2.  If  you  keep  the  lips  closed  and  open  the  passage-way  be- 
between  the  back  of  the  tongue  and  the  soft  palate,  air  will  rush  in 
the  cavity  from  behind  D  +  (Q<). 

Suppose  again  that  instead  of  starting  with  the  tongue  elevated 
you  commence  with  it  depressed  I  (as  shown  by  dotted  line  Fig.  14,) 
and  then  elevate  the  tongue  into  the  position  for  e  in  ee\  f,  the  cavity 
between  the  two  shut  positions  is  reduced  in  size  and  the  contained 
air  compressed.  Then : — 

3.  If  you  keep  the  back  of  the  tongue  closed  against  the  soft 
palate  and  open  the  lips,  air  will  rush  out  of  the  cavity  through  the 
labial  aperture  G  +  (D>) ;  or 

4.  If  you  keep  the  lips  closed  and  open  the  passage-way  between 
the  back  of  the  tongue  and  the  soft  palate,  air  will  rush  out  of  the 
cavity  into  the  pharynx  D  -(-  (Q>). 

Numbers  i  and  2  are  suction  clicks.  Numbers  3  and  4  are  ex- 
pulsion clicks.  Numbers  i  and  3  are  both  given  by  deaf  children 
instead  of  p  (D>). 

In  order  to  have  a  click  sound  it  is  necessary  that  you  should 
have  a  cavity  in  which  the  air  is  of  different  density  from  that  out- 
side. There  must,  therefore,  be  two  constrictions  of  the  passage- 
way which  we  may  call  x,  y,  with  a  cavity  between  them.  If  the 
air  in  that  cavity  is  of  less  density  than  the  air  outside,  the  opening 
of  the  passage-way  at  either  end  will  result  in  a  sudden  in-rush  of 
air,  forming  a  suction  click. 


It  the  air  in  the  cavity  is  of  greater  density,  an  expulsion  click 
will  be  produced.  Double  positions  are,  therefore,  capable  of  pro- 
ducing two  suction  clicks,  and  two  expulsion  clicks  which  may  be 
thus  symbolized:— 


i. 


(->'«)  I 
.  y  +  (  x<  )  [ 


Suction  Clicks. 


3-  *  +  (?*  )  \  Expulsion  Qicks. 

4-  y+(x>)  1 

In  my  use  of  the  symbols  — 

>  means  air  going  out  from  the  lungs; 

<  means  air  going  into  the  lungs; 

>  means  air  going  out  from  a  cavity  ; 

<  means  air  going  into  a  cavity. 

I  have  alluded  to  two  labial  clicks  made  by  deaf  children  instead 
of  P.     There  is  still  a  third  which  is  quite  common  X  +  (D>). 


Fig.   15. 

1.  X    4-  a    +(D<) 

2.  x    +(a<)+  D 
MX<)  +  a    +  D 

4.  x    +  a    +(D>) 


Suftion  Clicks. 


>•  Expulsion  Clicks. 


6.(x>)+  a    +  D 

The  inner  shut  position  is  produced  by  the  closure  of  the  glottis 
(  X  )  (See  Fig.  15),  and  the  cavity  between  the  two  shut  positions  is 


larger  than  in  the  case  shown  in  Fig.  14.  The  sound  therefore  has 
a  lower  pitch  than  any  of  the  clicks  resulting  from  the  positions 
shown  in  Fig.  14. 

The  pupil  also  is  unable  to  breathe  through  the  nose  while  pro- 
ducing the  sound. 

The  closure  of  the  soft  palate  against  the  back  ol  the  pharynx 
(D)  is  of  course  assumed  though  not  expressed  in  the  symbol 
X  +  (D>).  There  are  really  in  this  case  three  shut  positions,  and 
theory  therefore  indicates  the  possibility  of  producing  three  expulsion 
and  three  suction  clicks  from  the  positions  shown.  Below  Fig.  1 5 
I  give  the  symbols  for  the  six  clicks  alluded  to  for  the  benefit  of 
those  who  desire  to  study  them.  I  need  not  describe  them  further 
in  detail,  as  we  meet  with  only  one  of  them — the  fourth — in  our 
work. 

The  fourth  click  X  +  (D>)  is  sometimes  given  by  deaf  children 
in  place  of  D>  (/>). 

We  meet  with  three  click  forms  of  O>  (/),  G+(O<) ;  G+  (O>) ; 

andX+(0>) 

The  inner  shut  positions  in  each  case  is  the  same  as  that  already 
noted  for  p. 

Kis  subject  to  only  one  click  X+  (&>)• 

IM  is  often  given  as  a  vocalized  kiss  B-\-  (D<) — such  a  word  as 
"mamma  "  for  example,  being  pronounced  as  two  kisses  with  the 
voice  passing  continuously  through  the  nose.  6+  (D<D<). 

<5y  is  liable  to  a  click  of  similar  formation  €J+(O<),  but  ng  is 
never  clicked. 

CB,  d  and  g  are  subject  to  a  very  curious  form  of  suction  click 
resulting  from  the  attempt  to  teach  these  sounds  elementarily  instead 
of  in  combination  with  vowels.  A  teacher,  for  example,  will  pro- 
nounce the  sound  of  b  without  opening  the  lips  (3),  and  place  her 
pupil's  hand  upon  her  throat  so  that  he  may  feel  the  vibration  pro- 
duced by  the  vocal  cords.  The  voice  cannot  be  prolonged  because 
the  closure  of  the  lips  prevents  the  escape  of  air.  The  pupil  there- 
fore feels  only  a  momentary  impulse  of  voice;  and  in  alternating  to 
imitate  this  effect,  he  makes  a  sudden  muscular  effort. 

If  you  place  your  hand  upon  the  pupil's  throat  while  he  makes 
the  sound,  you  will  observe  a  strong  muscular  effort  causing  an  ex- 
pansion of  the  whole  throat.  The  cavity  between  the  vocal  cords 
and  the  lips  is  thus  enlarged,  creating  a  partial  vacuum  within. 
The  slit-like  aperture  of  the  glottis  is  not  large  enough  to  permit  air 
to  freely  enter  the  cavity  from  the  lungs  so  as  to  restore  the  pressure. 


Upon    opening    the   lips,    therefore,    air   enters  the  cavity  from" 
outside,  thus  forming  a  su&ion  click,  I  +  (D<). 

D  and  g  are  liable  to  a  similar  defeat.  For  example  :  d  = 
[-f  (D<),  g  =  1  +  (Q<).  These  clicks,  unfortunately,  are  of  very 
common  occurrence. 

TABLE  OF  CLICKS  GIVEN   BY   DEAF    CHILDREN. 


For  p. 
For  /. 
For  k. 

Fnr  *M 

G+(D<) 
G+(D<) 

G+(D>) 
G+(D>) 

K  +  (D>) 
X  +  (D>) 

X  +  (Q>) 

«  _i_  /n<A 

For  n.  6+(O<) 

For  ng.  - 

For  b.  —  I  +  (D<) 

For  d.  -  I  +  (O<) 


If  you  have  followed  me  so  far,  you  will  recognize  the  fact 
that  clicks  result  from  double  positions  of  the  vocal  organs.  When, 
therefore,  you  hear  a  click,  you  know  that  there  is  a  constriction 
somewhere  which  is  concealed  from  direft  observation.  In  study- 
ing the  defed,  therefore,  your  first  object  should  be  to  discover  where 
that  concealed  position  is.  The  clicks  most  commonly  given  by  deaf 
children  result  either  from  the  closure  of  the  back  of  the  tongue 
against  the  soft  palate  (d),  or  from  the  closure  of  the  glottis  (X). 

If  the  pupil  can  breathe  through  the  nose,  you  may  assume  at 
once  that  the  concealed  position  is  G  (ng,  without  voice).  If  he 
does  not  breathe  through  the  nose,  the  location  is  more  uncertain 
(either  Q  or  X).  The  pitch  of  the  sound  may  help  you  here,  for  a 
click  which  is  due  to  the  closure  of  the  glottis  is  lower  in  pitch 
than  one  due  to  the  closure  of  the  back  of  the  tongue  against  the 
soft  palate,  because  the  cavity  is  larger.  Perhaps  the  most  certain 
plan  of  ascertaining  the  location  is  to  cause  the  pupil  to  repeat  the 
click  for  as  long  a  time  as  possible  without  stopping. 

If  he  is  not  breathing  through  the  nose,  nature  will  sooner  or 
later  force  him  to  relinquish  the  concealed  position  in  order  to  take 
breath.  Watch  for  that  moment.  At  the  moment  of  relinquishment 
a  sound  will  be  heard  which  will  enable  you  to  determine  by  ear  the 
location  of  the  concealed  position.  For  example:  If  the  back  of  the 
tongue  is  involved  you  will  hear  the  sound  of  k  (Q<  or  Q>), 


9} 

pronounced  either  with  the  air  going  in  or  out  of  the  lungs.  If  the 
glottis  is  closed  you  will  hear  ( X>  or  X<)  the  effect  of  throat  shut 
followed  by  a  puff  of  air.  If  you  are  uncertain  whether  or  not  the 
pupil  can  breathe  through  the  nose,  hold  the  nostrils  closed 
with  your  fingers  until  the  pupil's  breath  gives  out.  If  the 
concealed  position  was  G  (ng  without  voice)  you  should  hear  the 
sound  of  k  (O>  or  Q<)  for  G  —  )  =  d. 

The  first  step  in  the  correction  of  a  defect  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
cause.  With  this  knowledge  the  teacher  can  not  only  devise  means 
(i)  of  correcting  the  defect,  but  (2)  of  utilizing  it  in  the  production 
of  other  sounds.  Let  us  take  as  a  typical  case  of  a  click  defect,  the 
sound  of  a  kiss  given  instead  of  p.  How  can  we  correct  it  and  how 
can  we  utilize  it  ? 

(i)  Correction  of  the  defeft.  In  this  case  the  cause  consists  in 
the  assumption  of  a  shut  position  (G)  which  prevents  the  breath 
from  reaching  the  lips.  If  then,  we  can  devise  any  method  of  caus- 
ing air  from  the  lungs  to  press  against  the  lips  the  assumption  of  the 
concealed  position  becomes  impossible.  For  example:  You  can 
make  your  pupil  blow  feathers  or  pieces  of  paper  away  from  his  lips, 
or  inflate  his  cheeks  while  trying  to  pronounce  p. 

These  are  simple  expedients  that  are  usually  successful;  but 
they  may  fail  because  it  is  perfectly  possible  to  produce  inflation  of 
the  cheeks  and  expulsion  of  air  from  the  mouth,  and  yet  have  the 
back  of  the  tongue  shut  against  the  soft  palate  when  the  lips  are 
opened. 

The  characteristic  puff  heard  during  the  production  of  a  click  is 
necessarily  of  very  short  duration.  Then  get  your  pupil  to  make  a 
continuous  effort  of  expiration.  For  example :  Let  him  shut  his  lips 
and  blow  continuously  through  a  very  fine  orifice  between  them 
(DO*)  as  though  he  were  blowing  to  cool  something. 

In  producing  a  prolonged  emission  of  this  kind  the  air  can  only 
come  from  the  lungs,  and  the  assumption  of  any  interior  shut  posi- 
tion is  therefore  impossible.  It  is  true  that  the  inflation  of  the  cheeks 
suggested  above,  and  the  too  small  aperture  between  the  lips  just 
alluded  to,  themselves  constitute  defects;  but  they  are  easily  cor- 
rected, because  the  actions  are  visible.  A  skillful  teacher  will  not 
hesitate  to  substitute  a  defect  that  is  easy  of  correction  for  one  that 
is  more  difficult. 


94 

(2)  Utilisation  of  the  defefti-ve  sound.  The  moment  you  realize 
that  the  concealed  shut  position  is  G  you  will  recognize  the  possi- 
bility of  producing  ng  (G)  from  a  kiss.  For  example:  Get  the 
pupil  to  add  voice  to  the  kiss. 


and  at  once  you  obtain  ng  combined  with  a  labial  action.     By  ma- 
nipulation of  the  pupil's  mouth  you  can  prevent  the  lips  from  closing, 


<)]  -  (D<)  =G 

and  you  then  get  ng  alone.  If  the  pupil  has  not  already  acquired 
the  sound  of  ng,  you  can  thus  utilize  the  kiss  as  a  means  of  teaching 
it  to  him;  and  if  he  already  has  the  sound  and  knows  its  symbol 
(G)  then  the  presentation  of  the  symbol  for  the  kiss  will  convey  to 
his  mind  an  idea  of  the  mechanism  of  the  click.  In  correcting  de- 
fects, it  is  surely  advisable,  if  possible,  that  the  pupil  as  well  as  the 
teacher  should  know  the  cause  and  understand  the  mechanism  of 
the  defective  sound. 

If  then  your  little  pupil  should  happen  to  give  the  sound  of  a 
kiss  instead  of  the  letter  p,  don't  frown  at  him  and  say,  "No,  no, 
that  is  not  right."  Give  him  the  symbol  G+  (D<)  and  encourage 
him  by  a  sign  of  approval. 

He  has  tried  his  best  and  it  is  not  his  fault  that  he  failed  to  give 
the  sound  you  wanted.  All  sounds  are  but  positions  to  him  and  he 
was  right  in  his  attempt  —  not  wrong  —  for  he  imitated  correctly  the 
position  which  alone  he  could  see  —  the  position  of  the  lips.  Why 
then  should  we  express  disapproval  ?  He  had  done  nothing  worthy 
of  censure.  The  "No-no  method  "does  not  help  him  to  correct 
the  defect  —  and  it  does  throw  cold  water  upon  honest  attempts  to 
please.  Give  him  a  sign  for  his  sound,  and  reward  his  effort  by 
approbation.  If  you  do  not  know  how  to  write  the  sound  properly 
give  him  x  as  a  provisional  symbol  —  or  invent  a  character  to  repre- 
sent it.  Say,  "That  is  what  you  did,  now  do  it  again."  The 
"  No-no  method  "  gives  him  the  idea  that  it  is  wrong  to  make  a 
noise  of  that  kind.  On  the  contrary,  encourage  him  to  repeat  the 
sound  so  that  you  may  study  it  and  find  out  how  best  to  utilize  it 
in  his  instruction.  If  the  sound  is  unfamiliar  to  your  ear  and  you  do 
not  know  how  it  is  formed,  that  itself  is  a  reason  why  you  should 
hold  on  to  it  and  not  throw  it  away.  When  you  have  analyzed  its 


95 

composition  you  may  find  it  to  contain  gold  where  you  only  asked 
for  lead.  Let  your  pupil  repeat  the  sound  until  you  can  imitate  it 
yourself.  Then  study  your  own  mouth.  In  the  meantime  do  not^ 
let  him  forget  the  sound.  Fix  it  by  reference  to  the  letter  x,  or  some 
other  mark,  and  when  you  have  satisfied  yourself  how  it  should  be 
expressed,  substitute  for  x  the  proper  symbol. 

The  meaning  of  the  symbol  need  not  be  explained  to  a  young 
child.  It  may  be  treated  as  an  arbitrary  sign.  The  expression  G-f- 
(D<)  need  only  mean  to  him,  "That's  what  you  did,  now  do  it 
again."  The  deaf  child  soon  comes  to  understand  the  application 
of  the  symbols  even  though  he  may  not  understand  their  full  mean- 
ing. For  example:  When  he  knows  that  G+(D<)  represents  the 
sound  he  makes,  then  if  you  change  the  symbol  to  €5+(D<)  he  will 
at  once  attempt  to  vocalize  the  kiss.  He  will  do  this  even  though 
he  may  be  unable  to  analyze  or  understand  the  full  significance  of 
the  expression. 

-The  symbols  of  Visible  Speech  are  invaluable  as  a  means  of  cor- 
recting and  utilizing  defective  sounds.  Indeed,  I  think  their  chief 
value  lies  in  their  ability  to  express  the  mechanism  of  the  sounds  the 
children  make,  so  as  to  show  in  a  graphical  manner  their  relation  to 
the  English  sounds  we  wish  them  to  give. 

The  methods  suggested  above  are  applicable  to  the  correction 
of  all  the  clicks  of  t  and  h.  (See  Table  of  Clicks). 

DEFECTIVE  COMBINATIONS   OF    P,     T,    K. 

Pupils  who  are  taught  by  means  of  Visible  Speech  have  many  ad- 
vantages over  those  taught  only  by  means  of  Roman  letters  and 
diacritical  marks.  Defects  of  combination,  which  are  inevitable  upon 
the  latter  plan,  and  which  require  the  expenditure  of  much  time  and 
labor  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  in  order  to  correct  them,  need  not 
arise  at  all  when  symbols  are  employed,  and  if  they  do  arise  are 
easily  corrected. 

Let  me  illustrate  by  a  common  case. 

The  position  for  p  (D)  by  itself  yields  no  sound,  because  the 
lips  are  closed.  It  is  usual,  therefore,  to  teach  it  in  combination 
with  an  open  position.  Thus,  D>.  The  lips  are  first  shut  and 
then  opened  to  allow  of  the  escape  of  a  puff  of  air. 

Here  we  have  two  successive  positions  represented  by  only 
one  character  p.  This  leads  at  once  to  a  defect  when  p  is  com- 
bined with  other  letters,  for  the  child  naturally  attempts  to  give 


96 

both  positions  (D>)  wherever/)  occurs.  Thus,  ps  becomes  D>y  in- 
stead of  DO  (a  puff  of  air  appears  between  the  p  and  5).  So  also 
with  /  and  k. 

Ts  becomes  O>O  instead  of  DO. 

Ks  becomes  Q>W  instead  of  QU. 

Tsh(ch)  becomes  D>Q  instead  of  OQ,  etc. 

These  defects  are  inevitable  upon  the  Roman  letter  plan. 
Without  the  use  of  symbols  it  is  difficult  to  explain  the  nature  of 
the  defect  to  a  deaf  child  who  knows  no  language.  The  teacher 
usually  imitates  the  defective  sound  and  exclaims,  "  Don't  say  O>Q, 
but  DQ  (tsh),"  trusting  to  the  quickness  of  the  pupil's  eye  to  discern 
the  difference  in  her  mouth.  Your  chief  reliance  is  upon  imitation, 
and  if  that  fails  you,  where  are  you  ?  Now,  these  defects  need  not 
arise  at  all  when  the  sounds  are  taught  by  symbols;  and  when 
they  do  occur,  they  are  easily  corrected,  because  we  can  express 
the  incorrect  as  well  as  the  correct  effect  so  as  to  exhibit  the  differ- 
ence. 

In  teaching  these  sounds  by  means  of  visible  speech  we  com- 
mence in  the  same  way  as  that  just  described — by  teaching  p,  t  and 
A,  as  D>,  O>,  and  Q>  but  we  employ  two  characters  to  express  the 
two  positions  instead  of  one.  Then  when  the  sound  of  s  (£5)  is  ac- 
quired we  combine  as  follows: 

1.  "Say  D>"     "That  is  right." 

2.  ' '  Now  say  O  "     "  Right. " 

3.  "NowsayO>U"     "  Right  again." 

(Observe  the  difference  in  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  towards 
her  pupil.  Here  is  the  very  defective  combination  of  ts  alluded  to 
above.  But  the  teacher  of  visible  speech,  having  expressed  the  po- 
sitions actually  assumed  by  her  pupil,  can  truthfully  say,  "That's 
right,"  with  an  approving  nod— where  the  Roman  letter  teacher 
could  only  say,  "No,  no,  that's  wrong.") 

4.   "  Now  try  first  O>O  and  then  DO." 

Here  the  pupil's  attention  is  directed  to  the  difference  between 
the  two  effects,  and  his  aim  is  to  give  the  last  combination  without 
the  puff  af  air  (>).  Whatever  he  does,  therefore,  his  aim  is  right — 
which  is  not  the  case  on  the  Roman  letter  plan.  And  whatever  he 
does,  the  teacher  can  give  him  a  symbol  for  his  sound  and  say, 
"That's  what  you  did,  now  do  it  again." 

In  a  little  time  quite  a  number  of  variations  upon  the  sound  of 
ts  may  be  obtained.  Anxiety  to  avoid  the  puff  of  air  often  leads 


97 

him  to  put  it  in — now  in  one  place,  now  in  another;  for  example, 
the  pupil  may  say,  O>£5  or  >OU  or  >O=*y,  etc. 

It  is  not  the  teacher's  object  to  have  him  forget  the  incorrect 
sounds  but  to  remember  them  and  contrast  them  one  with  the 
other.  The  greater  the  number  of  slight  variations  that  can  be  pro- 
nounced at  will  by  the  pupil  the  more  power  does  he  obtain  over 
his  vocal  organs.  A  good  marksman  should  be  able  to  hit  one 
mark  just  as  well  as  another. 

The  sound  of  ch  (tsh)  presents  exceptional  difficulties  to  a  dea. 
child.  Even  when  the  /  is  properly  combined  with  sh  without  any 
puff  of  air  between  the  two  (thus  DQ)  your  ear  usually  tells  you 
that  there  is  something  wrong  when  the  combination  is  uttered  in  a 
word. 

I  think  the  fault  lies  in  the  undue  prolongation  of  the  sh  position 
(OQ*).  If  you  observe  your  own  utterance  of  such  words  as  chair, 
cheese,  church,  such,  much,  touch,  watch,  etc.,  you  will  notice  that 
the  tongue  does  not  remain  for  any  length  of  time  in  the  sh  position. 
Thes/2  indeed  constitutes  a  non- vocal  glide,  a  mere  transitional  effect, 
between  /  and  the  succeeding  element.  The  unnatural  effect  pro- 
duced by  prolongation  is  most  marked  when  sh  occurs  finally,  as  in 
much,  touch,  etc.  (SJOQ*  O]OQ»,  etc.).  I  have  rarely  failed  to  ob- 
tain the  vernacular  effect  from  a  deaf  child  by  expressing  the  sound 
of  ch  final  as  OQ>  instead  of  DQ.  Indeed,  as  a  general  rule  a  non- 
vocal  consonant  occurring  as  a  final  element  is  most  naturally  given 
by  a  deaf  child  when  the  symbol  for  the  sound  is  followed  by  >. 
For  example: 

(cuff)  d]3>       (us)  3U>  (both)  3}tt5>        (wish) 

(cup)  d]D>       (nut)  tf]0>      (sick)  tffd>  (maps) 

(cuffs)  d]3O>  (nuts)  CD]OO>  (deaths)  QIW^>   (books)  01dO> 
(watch)  3JOQ> 

Of  course,  when  these  words  occur  in  the  middle  of  a  phrase, 
the  puff  of  air  must  be  omitted,  for  the  phrase  is  pronounced  as  one 
word  and  the  consonant  is  then  no  longer  final. 

CORRECTION  OF  THE  DEFECTS  OF  fB,  D,    G,  M  AND   N. 

It  is  difficult  to  pronounce  the  sound  of  b  (0),  without  opening 
the  lips  and  when  a  deaf  child  attempts  to  do  this  a  defective  sound 
arises  which,  when  combined  in  a  word  with  other  sounds, 
produces  the  click  form  of  b  [I+(D<)]  alluded  to  in  the  table  of 
clicks.  T)  and  g  are  subject  to  a  similar  defect. 

I  would  recommend  combining  these  consonants  with  vowels 
from  the  very  first.  I  commence  with  an  indefinite  vowel  (I),  which 


may  be  er  her,  u  in  up,  or  any  indefinite  vowel  sound  that  the 
child  can  make.  For  example:  B,  d,  g  may  be  taught  as  31  01  €11 
(ber,  der,  ger,  or  bu,  du,  gu,  etc.)  There  is  really  no  difficulty  in 
teaching  b  in  combination,  for  it  can  be  manipulated  while  the  child 
produces  the  vowel  sound.  Let  the  child  prolong  an  indefinite 
vowel  sound  wkh  his  lips  pretty  close  together.  Now  place  your 
thumb  and  finger  under  his  lower  lip  and  move  the  lip  rapidly  up 
and  down  so  as  to  close  and  open  the  labial  aperture.  This  results 
in  310131  etc.  (ber,  ber,  ber,  etc.)  Care  should  be  taken  to  make 
the  movement  an  opening  not  a  closing  action.  The  closure  should 
be  only  momentary.  The  under  lip  should  instantly  rebound  from 
the  upper  lip  as  a  hammer  rebounds  from  an  anvil.  Now  teach  the 
child  himself  to  move  his  lip  up  and  down  with  his  finger.  His 
attempt  should  be  to  pronounce  the  vowel  (I)  continuously  and  make 
no  muscular  effort  with  the  lips.  After  he  can  do  this  well  let  him 
try  to  move  his  lip  rapidly  up  and  down  in  the  same  way  without 
the  assistance  of  his  hand.  There  should  be  no  mascular  tension, 
but  on  the  contrary  the  lips  should  feel  soft  and  loose. 

You  cannot  manipulate  the  point  of  the  tongue  in  this  way,  but 
when  the  pupil  can  pronounce  DI0IDI,  etc.,  analogy  leads  him  to  give 
0I0KDI  etc.,  (der  der  der,  etc.)  and  QlQlQI  etc.,  (gu  gu  gu  etc.) 

The  clicks  of  m  and  n  are  more  difficult  of  correction. 
After  the  child  can  give  0I0IDI  etc.,  or  CDlQlQl  etc.,  it  is  well  to  try 
whether  analogy  will  not  lead  him  to  give  8IQISI  or  ffilCClCDl  etc. 
This  often  succeeds,  but  in  difficult  cases  the  back  of  the  tongue 
remains  closed  against  the  soft  palate,  thus  converting  the  sound 
into  8-{-(D<D<D<)  or  6+(D<D<D<  etc.)  a  continuous  sound  of  ng 
accompanied  by  a  succession  of  clicks.  The  defect  is  due  to  the 
retention  of  the  back-shut  position  (Q).  I  think,  therefore,  the  best 
way  to  deal  with  a  difficult  case  is  to  aim  at  control  of  the  back  of  the 
tongue,  so  that  the  pupil  shall  acquire  the  power  of  elevating  and 
depressing  it  at  will.  I  would  suggest  taking  the  concealed  posi- 
tion €5  by  itself  and  combining  this  with  an  indefinite  vowel  sound 
thus:  SiSiei  etc. 

When  he  can  do  this  well  contrast  it  with  Bi8iS9l  etc.,  thus 
€5iei€5i  B\B\Bl  etc.,  &\&l&\&\  etc.     The  analogy  of  the  symbols 
will  probably  lead  him  to  give  the  correct  effect. 

Whand  w  (J3  and  59)  are  very  defectively  given  by  deaf  child- 
ren, but  I  have  already  spoken  of  the  mode  of  correction  in  a  former 
lecture. 


99 

F,  v,  th,  fh,  (3  3  13  &5)  present  no  difficulties  of  importance. 
S,  sh,  yh,  (15  Q  O)  and  their  vocal  forms  Z,  ^h,  y  (05  ft  and  O), 
are  liable  chiefly  to  faults  of  position.  That  is,  the  tongue  may  be 
a  little  too  far  forward  ( * ) ;  or  too  far  back  ( < ) ;  or  too  high  up. 
There  may  be  too  much  compression  of  the  passage-way  (  A  ) ;  or 
too  little  compression  ( v ). 

My  plan  of  correction  is — to  write  what  the  pupil  does,  using 
these  modifiers  according  to  the  character  of  the  defeat  to  be  sym- 
bolized. For  example:  &<  Q>  Qv  QA  etc. 

I  then  get  the  pupil  to  vary  the  position  slightly  and  contrast  the 
new  position  with  the  old  making  him  pronounce  both  sounds  alter- 
nately so  as  to  observe  their  difference. 

In  difficult  cases  it  is  well  to  manipulate  the  non-vocal  forms  5, 
sh,  and  yh,  (O,  Q,  and  O,)  from  th  (IS)  in  the  manner  I  have 
already  described  in  answer  to  a  question.  When  these  are  well 
fixed  the  vocal  forms  follow  as  a  matter  of  course  by  the  addition 
of  voice. 


VOWELS,  GLIDES,  AND  COMBINATIONS. 


DR.  A.  GRAHAM  BELL  :  I  have  advocated  the  very  general  use 
of  an  indefinite,  in  place  of  a  definite  vowel  sound  in  unaccented 
syllables.  You  must  not,  however,  suppose  from  this  that  I  under- 
value vowels,  or  deem  accuracy  of  vowel  quality  of  no  practical 
importance  in  our  work.  Far  from  it.  I  only  mean  to  insist  that 
vowels  are  of  secondary  importance  to  consonants. 

Consonants  give  intelligibility  to  speech,  but  vowels  give  beauty 
of  utterance.  Consonants  constitute  the  back-bone  of  spoken 
language— vowels  the  flesh  and  blood.  You  cannot  do  without 
them. 

We  want  our  pupils  to  acquire,  not  merely  an  intelligible  articu- 
lation, but  also,  if  possible,  a  natural  and  pleasant  quality  of  speech. 
We  must,  therefore,  attend  to  the  vowels.  It  is  neither  necessary, 
however,  nor  advisable,  that  every  vowel  in  a  phrase  should  be  given 
its  full  value.  Unaccented  syllables  should  be  toned  down  like  the 
shaded  portions  of  a  picture  thus  bringing  out  by  contrast,  the 
accented  parts  of  words. 

Beauty  of  utterance  depends  as  much  upon  shading  as  upon 
form — as  much  upon  the  due  subordination  of  the  unaccented  syl- 
lables as  upon  accuracy  of  vowel  quality. 

It  is  a  very  difficult  thing,  even  for  hearing  persons,  to  give  un- 
accented vowels  their  proper  sounds  without  bringing  them  out  too 
prominently,  so  as  to  produce  that  pedantic  style  of  pronunciation 
which  is  often  mistaken  for  elocution. 

The  really  good  speaker  gives  the  proper  value  to  unaccented 
vowels  without  italicizing  them  to  the  ear.  The  mass  of  the  deaf, 
however,  are  no  more  able  to  do  this,  than  the  mass  of  the  hearing. 
Indeed,  the  attempt  results  in  a  much  more  unnatural  effect  than 

IOO 


ro\ 

the  utterance  of  the  pedantic  speaker — because  the  vowel  quality  it- 
self is  usually  defective.  Under  such  circumstances  indefiniteness  is 
of  importance.  It  produces,  not  a  worse,  but  a  better  effect.  You 
must  not  suppose,  when  I  advocate  a  careless  utterance  of  un- 
accented syllables,  that  I  am  urging  you  to  teach  worse  speech  than 
your  pupils  now  possess ;  on  the  contrary,  I  believe  that  the  result 
will  be  recognized  as  a  great  improvement.  You  will  tone  down 
sounds  that  are  usually  defective  so  that  they  will  not  come  out  so 
prominently  to  the  ear;  and  accent,  which  is  now  conspicuous 
chiefly  by  its  absence,  will  be  produced  by  the  subordination  of  the 
unimportant  parts  of  words. 

Give  as  definite  vowels  as  possible  in  the  accented  syllables,  but 
don't  be  too  precise  about  the  others. 

Vowels  are  the  most  difficult  elements  we  are  called  upon  to 
teach.  Why  is  this  so  ?  The  discovery  of  the  cause  may  perhaps 
enable  us  to  devise  a  remedy.  Let  us  examine  into  the  matter. 

How  do  vowel  positions  differ  from  the  positions  that  yield  con- 
sonant sounds  ?  They  result  from  larger  apertures.  Can  this  have 
anything  to  do  with  the  difficulty  of  the  acquirement  ?  It  seems  so, 
for  wide-aperture  vowels  are  more  difficult  to  obtain  in  perfection 
than  the  others. 

Get  a  pupil  to  prolong  a  small-aperture  vowel.  The  sound, 
even  when  defective,  has  a  definite  quality  of  its  own.  A  lower  po- 
sition of  the  tongue,  however,  yields  an  effecl  of  indefinite  kind. 
The  oral  aperture  is  usually  too  large  and  the  sound,  when  prolonged, 
is  unstable  and  variable  in  quality,  showing  that  the  pupil  finds  diffi- 
culty in  retaining  the  position  unchanged. 

Sometimes  the  attempt  results  in  a  visible  trembling  of  the 
tongue. 

In  forming  consonants  and  small-aperture  vowels,  the  tongue 
makes  actual  contact  with  the  upper  part  of  the  mouth  at  one  or 
more  points;  but  in  lower  positions  it  is  hung  in  the  air,  so  to  speak, 
without  anything  against  which  to  press.  Extend  your  arm  and 
you  can  easily  retain  it  in  a  fixed  position  if  you  press  your  hand 
against  the  under  surface  of  a  table  or  shelf,  but  extend  it  in  the  air 
and  I  fancy  you  will  find  more  difficulty  in  keeping  it  still.  Your 
hand — if  you  do  not  watch  it — is  apt  to  waver  like  the  unsteady 
tongue  of  the  deaf  child,  and  a  constant  tendency  exists  to  a  lower 
position. 

Your  ear  aids  you  in  the  retention  of  a  vowel  position,  because 
any  change  affects  the  quality  of  the  sound. 


102 

Try  to  keep  your  tongue  still,  without  making  any  noise,  and 
you  will  appreciate  the  difficulty  experienced  by  your  pupil.  He 
lacks  a  guide. 

Give  him  a  mirror  and  at  once  he  becomes  conscious  of  the 
movement  of  his  tongue. 

The  sound  is  your  guide,  and  if  you  merely  think  of  the  sound, 
that  helps  you  to  retain  the  position.  His  guide  must  be  sight,  and 
by  seeing  he  will  learn  control.  The  thought  of  the  image  he  has 
seen  in  the  mirror  will  help  him,  as  the  thought  of  the  sound  helps 
you. 

I  cannot  overestimate  the  value  and  importance  of  a  mirror  in 
articulation  work.  It  is  not  enough  that  a  pupil  should  watch  his 
teacher's  mouth,  he  must  see  his  own.  Accuracy  and  definiteness 
of  sound  depend  upon  the  ability  to  retain  a  position  unchanged, 
mdeed,  as  1  said  in  my  second  lecture,  control  over  the  vocal  organs 
is  gained  not  so  much  by  moving  them  as  by  keeping  them  still. 
Clearness  of  pronunciation  depends  upon  the  ability  to  enunciate 
every  element  in  a  word  with  clearness  and  deliberation.  A  poor 
speaker  finds  difficulty  in  uttering  a  word  slowly  or  separating  it 
into  its  component  parts. 

Give  your  pupil  a  mirror  and  let  ,him  learn  to  keep  his  tongue 
still.  It  doesn't  much  matter  what  he  does,  so  long  as  he  assumes 
different  positions  of  the  tongue,  retaining  each  for  some  time  with- 
out motion. 

Little  children  delight  to  puzzle  one  another  by  assuming 
unusual  positions  of  the  tongue  which  the  others  cannot  imitate. 
They  should  be  encouraged  in  this,  for  all  exercises  of  that  kind  are 
of  value  as  a  preparation  for  speech.  By  such  exercises  they 
unconsciously  gain  control  over  their  vocal  organs  and  become 
better  able  to  imitate  positions  of  the  mouth.  They  feel  a  certain 
muscular  exertion  and  see  the  effect  in  the  mirror,  and  this  constant 
association  of  seeing  and  feeling  ultimately  enables  them  to  realize 
by  muscular  sensation  alone  exactly  what  the  tongue  is  doing. 

I  consider  a  looking  glass  as  a  necessity  in  the  schoolroom. 
You  can  no  more  expect  to  teach  a  deaf  child  good  speech  without 
a  mirror  than  you  can  hope  to  teach  a  hearing  child  to  paint  well 
without  letting  him  see  the  result  of  his  efforts. 

I  would  especially  recommend  as  an  exercise  before  a  mirror 
alternately  narrowing  and  broadening  the  tongue.  The  attempt  to 
narrow  the  tongue  causes  it  to  become  stiff  and  hard  to  the  touch, 
with  a  rounded  surface.  When  it  is  broadened  the  surface  becomes 


103 

flat  and  soft.  The  most  common  fault,  I  think,  among  deaf  children 
is  an  exaggerated  muscular  action  leading  to  a  stiffening  and  narrow- 
ing of  the  tongue.  For  example:  Many  children  in  trying  to  form 
I  (ee)  make  so  much  muscular  effort  that  the  tongue  feels  hard. 
The  tongue  is  narrowed  and  fits  up  into  the  arch  of  the  palate, 
making  contact  with  the  top  of  the  hard  palate,  and  though  a  centre 
aperture  exists  over  the  front  of  the  tongue  the  effect  of  the  vowel  f 
is  not  produced.  1  have  found  C  (the  German  ch)  to  be  a  very 
important  position.  It  forms,  indeed,  the  key  note  to  the  vowels. 
As  a  general  rule  if  a  child  can  pronounce  C  you  can  teach  him  to 
glide  the  tongue  forward  (C>)  and  backward  (C<),  retaining  the  small 
centre  aperture,  and  by  getting  him  to  do  this  as  far  back  and  as  far 
forward  as  possible,  the  latter  position  generally  gives  O,  which, 
by  the  addition  of  voice,  becomes  a  good  I  (ee).  In  difficult  cases  I 
have  found  it  a  good  plan  to  give  the  pupil  the  idea  that  O  is  C 
modified  by  expansion  of  the  tongue  so  as  to  press  sideways  against 
the  molar  teeth  on  each  side  instead  of  pressing  up  into  the  arch  of 
the  palate.  In  some  cases  the  simple  direction  to  broaden  the 
tongue  will  correct  the  defective  f  (ee). 

Pupils  sometimes  give  X  or  even  1  for  f  (ee),  and  sometimes  f 
T  or  1.  These  defects  arise  from  the  attempt  to  say  ee  with  the  teeth 
too  far  apart.  You  cannot  pronounce  (ee)  properly  with  the  mouth 
wide  open.  A  teacher,  however,  is  apt  to  separate  the  teeth  as 
much  as  possible  in  order  to  show  her  pupil  the  position  of  the 
tongue.  The  pupil  imitates  the  opening  of  the  jaws,  and  this  is  apt 
to  result  in  a  position  of  the  tongue  too  far  back  (I  or  1)  or  in  a 
position  having  too  wide  an  aperture  (IT  or  1). 

I  give  below  a  tabulated  list  of  the  elementary  vowels  used  in 
the  English  language  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  show  their 
place  in  the  complete  vowel  scheme  elaborated  by  my  father. 

MELVILLE  BELL'S  VOWEL  SCHEME. 


1 

I 

f 

1 

T 

f 

3 

I 

C 

3 

I 

C 

J 

X 

t 

J 

t 

t 

i 

f 

f 

1 

I 

f 

* 

\ 

1 

} 

t 

£ 

J 

I 

I 

1 

i 

I 

104 

ENGLISH  VOWELS. 
--    I      --     I 
3  C31- 

I       J     I     I 


J  J 

Some  one  has  observed  that  you  may  at  any  time  produce  a 
Scotch  air  by  striking  at  random  the  black  notes  of  the  piano.  The 
musical  scale  of  the  Celts  is  defective.  Examine  the  gamut  of  vowel 
sounds  as  given  by  my  father,  and  you  will  notice  that  the  English 
ear  seems  to  be  as  defective  for  vowel  sounds  as  the  Scotch  ear  is  for 
musical  notes.  Only  three  of  the  back  series  of  vowels  are  used  in 
the  English  language;  two  of  the  mixed  series,  and  five  of  the  front 
series.  Out  of  the  eighteen  round  vowels,  only  five  in  all  are  em- 
ployed in  our  language. 

You  will  observe  a  curious  likeness  between  the  peculiarities  of  the 
"  front  "  and  "back-round  "  series  of  vowels.  The  first  one  of  each 
series  (I  and  i)  is  always  of  long  duration  in  English,  and  the  second 
(I  and  1)  always  short.  The  third  (C  and  })  never  occurs  by  itself, 
but  is  used  simply  as  the  initial  part  of  a  diphthong.  The  sound 
ends  with  the  gliding  of  the  tongue  to  the  high  vowel  of  its  series. 
Thus  C  is  pronounced  as  \f  (a),  finishing  off  with  the  gliding  of  the 
tongue  towards  the  position  for  I  (ee)  ;  and  J  (p/i)  is  given  as  }1,  fin- 
ishing off  with  a  glide  towards  the  position  for  1  (do.)  The  fourth 
vowel  of  each  series  is  wanting  in  English.  The  fifth  vowel  of  the 
front  series  I  (e  in  pet)  is  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short.  The 
fifth  of  the  back-round  series,  however,  J  (aw)  is  always  long.  In 
both  series  the  sixth  vowel  (J  or  t)  is  always  of  short  duration. 

It  may  also  be  noted  that  the  mid-back  vowel  ]  (u  in  up)  also  is 
always  short. 

These  peculiarities  of  duration  do  not  necessarily  pertain  to  the 
vowels,  but  are  mere  matters  of  English  usage.  Many  persons  have 
the  mistaken  idea  that  the  vowels  in  the  words  eat,  and  /'/;  pool  and 
pull;  caught  and  cot;  calm  and  come,  are  the  long  and  short  forms 
of  the  same  vowels,  but  if  you  sing  these  words  you  will  recognize 
that  the  vowels  remain  distinct  to  the  ear  when  equally  prolonged  ; 
and  you  can  shorten  the  vowels  in  the  words  eat,  .pool,  caught  and 
calm,  without  producing  //,  pull,  cot  and  come.  In  fad,  this  is  the 
pronunciation  given  for  these  words  by  French  speakers  of  English. 


105 

I  am  inclined  to  think  that  there  is  some  natural  cause  for  the 
analogous  peculiarities  appearing  in  the  front  and  back-round  series 
of  vowels,  because  I  notice  in  both  dialectic  and  individual  utterance 
that  variations  from  the  standard,  appearing  in  one  series,  have  their 
analogues  in  the  other.  For  example:  where  (JT  (5)  is  pronounced  C 
without  any  gliding  of  the  tongue  toward  f  as  in  Scotch  and  in  Con- 
tinental pronunciation,  you  find  also  that  J*  (<5)  is  pronounced  91 
without  the  t  glide. 

So,  too,  where  individual  speakers  give  [f  or  If  for  (JT  (0)  they 
also  usually  say  }1  or  ft  for  }1  (<5),  etc. 

Examine  the  table  of  English  vowels  and  you  will  see  that  the 
front  and  back-round  series  are  nearly  complete,  and  you  will  recog- 
nize at  once  the  importance  of  I  (ee)  and  \  (oo),  for  from  them  the 
other  vowels  of  their  series  can  be  developed  by  simply  enlarging  the 
aperture. 

The  mixed  vowels  (land  J)  and  the  back  vowels  (]  3  andj)  pre- 
sent no  difficulties,  for  the  following  reason :  any  sort  of  an  indefi- 
nite sound  will  pass  for  I  (er  in  her)  and  1  (the  sound  of  the  indefi- 
nite article  a  in  a  sentence)  differs  so  slightly  from  this  that  there  is 
no  need  of  distinguishing  between  them.  In  unaccented  syllables  1 
would  express  these  two  sounds  indiscriminately  by  (I)  the  voice 
sign. 

3  (a  in  ask,  path,  etc.)  also  differs  so  slightly  from  J  (a  in  father, 
calm,  etc.)  that  there  is  no  need  to  bother  a  deaf  child  with  the  dis- 
tinction. I  teach  and  write  them  both  as  3  and  few  deaf  children 
have  any  difficulty  in  giving  the  sound. 

Then,  again,  this  may  be  considered  as  identical  with  3.  For 
example:  though  the  vowels  in  calf  and  cuff  are  really  different 
vowels  in  teaching  the  deaf,  we  may  consider  them  as  the  long  and 
short  form  of  the  same  vowel,  because,  as  a  matter  of  fad,  a 
deaf  child  gives  3  when  he  attempts  to  shorten  3.  It  should  be 
noted  that  this  vowel  3  (it  in  up)  like  \  (u  in  pull),  and  J  (o  in  on) 
never  occurs  by  itself  or  as  a  final  element.  I  would  not,  therefore, 
teach  these  sounds  elementarily,  but  always  in  combination  with  a 
succeeding  consonant.  The  short  effect  should  not  be  produced  by 
a  sudden  impulse  of  voice,  but  by  cutting  off  the  sound  by  the 
assumption  and  prolongation  of  the  succeeding  consonant.  For 
example:  let  a  child  prolong  (*)the  vowel  3  and  wind  up  with  a 
softly  uttered  3>,  and  you  get  the  efTed  of  "calf"  (Q33  =  Q3*3>). 
Whereas,  let  the  child  attempt  to  give  the  same  vowel  sound, 
but  prolong  the  3  position,  jumping  as  quickly  as  possible 


io6 

from  the  Q  to  the  3  position  and  you  get  the  effect  of  "cuff" 
(Q)3  =  Q33*>.)  So  with  calm  and.  come.  If  he  tries  to  give  the 
same  vowel  sound  to  both,  prolonging  the  Q  in  the  latter  word, 
passing  quickly  from  the  Q  to  the  9  position,  you  will,  as  a  matter 
of  fact  get  Q]9  although  he  tried  to  say  Q]3  with  a  shortened 
vowel  and  a  prolonged  consonant.  I  find  in  the  case  of  the  other 
short  vowels  1 J  and  I  that  deaf  children  generally  produce  the  proper 
effect  by  attempting  to  pronounce  them  as  1  J  and  I,  passing  quickly 
over  the  vowel  to  the  succeeding  consonant  and  prolonging  it. 
Thus  if  a  child  pronounces  DlCO  (pool)  correctly,  let  him  prolong 
the  CO  passing  as  quickly  as  possible  from  the  D  to  the  CO  and  he 
produces  the  effect  of  DlCO  (pull).  So  with  the  word  foot.  Let  him 
try  to  pronounce  it  as  3lO>,  prolonging  the  shut  position  O  of  the 
/,  and  passing  as  quickly  as  possible  from  the  3  to  the  D>,  and  you 
get  the  proper  vernacular  effect  3lO>.  So  with  J.  You  can  con- 
vert caught  into  c (ft  by  prolonging  the  shut  position  ( D )  of  the  /, 
(D>)  or  gaud  into  god,  by  prolonging  the  d  (CD.) 

The  vowel  f  is  the  most  frequent  vowel  in  the  English  language. 
It  is  rarely  necessary,  however,  to  explain  to  a  deaf  child  that  it 
differs  from  I  in  any  other  respect  than  length.  As  a  general 
rule,  if  the  deaf  child  prolongs  the  shut  position  (D)  of  the  /  (0=*)  in 
the  word  eat,  passing  quickly  over  the  vowel  position,  the  vernacu- 
lar effect  of  it  is  produced  (IO>=fO4>).  Indeed,  in  all  short  vowels 
the  succeeding  consonant  is  prolonged. 

MR.  LYON:  How  would  you  distinguish  the  final y  in  words; 
would  you  use  that  same  sound  ? 

DR.  BELL:    Yes. 

MR.  LYON  :  In  that  case  you  would  not  have  a  consonant  fol- 
lowing. 

DR.  BELL:  That's  true.  The  other  short  vowels  1  J  and  ]  are 
always  succeeded  by  consonants.  I  think  this  is  also  true  oft  and 
perhaps  of  I  except  when  followed  by  I  (er).  I  do  not  think  any 
of  the  short  vowels  excepting  f  occur  as  final  elements.  The  correct 
sound  of  final  y  is  f  (*'  in  it).  As  a  general  rule  the  pupil  will  give 
the  effect  correctly  if  he  tries  to  make  the  sound  I  (ee)  carelessly, 
with  little  muscular  exertion.  I,  therefore,  begin  by  getting  him  to 
try  to  say  I  (ee)  softly.  If  the  effect  off  results,  well  and  good.  I 
leave  it  alone.  If,  however,  we  obtain  too  pronounced  an  f  (ee)  I 
then  explain  that  the  aperture  is  too  small.  The  great  trouble  is 
that  if  you  tell  a  deaf  child  that  f  has  a  larger  aperture  than  I  he  is 
apt  to  exaggerate  the  difference  and  give  too  large  an  aperture. 


io7 

Whereas,  if  you  don't  say  anything  at  all  about  the  aperture  the 
attempt  to  say  I  with  little  muscular  exertion  usually  results  in  a 
satisfactory  f. 

I  give  below  a  table  of  the  English  vowels,  as  I  teach  them  to 
the  deaf,  arranging  them  so  as  to  show  their  place  in  my  father's 
complete  vowel  system  already  given. 

_    _      £         _    _    _ 


t 


T     _     _        _    _    _ 

The  short  vowels  1  1  J  and  ],  as  I  have  already  explained,  may 
be  considered  as  identical  with  I  1  J  and  3,  save  in  exceptional 
cases,  where  the  organic  difference  must  be  explained. 

The  medium  aperture  vowels  t  and  }  are  only  used  in  English 
as  the  initial  parts  of  the  diphthongs  Cf  (a)  and  }}  (6).  They  are 
usually  so  difficult  of  acquirement  that  we  are  generally  forced  to 
accept  U  and  J^  for  Cf  and  }}.  The  distinction  of  sound  is  so  slight, 
however,  that  the  error  is  surely  immaterial. 

I  (ee)  and  1  (00}  in  unaccented  syllables  become  I  (I) 
and  1"  (00)  in  ordinary  speech.  For  example:  the  word  the  by 
itself  is  2i5l  (thee),  but  when  unaccented  becomes  &5l;  fcSlDJf 
&3lO[r3CO,  "thl  boy,  thi  table,"  etc.  The  word  to  by  itself  is  Ol, 
but  in  unaccented  positions  becomes  Dl,  as  "I  gave  a  book 
OtofDJf  [too  thi  boy]." 

We  are  so  accustomed  to  give  indefinite  vowels  in  unaccented 
syllables  that  any  sort  of  indefinite  vowel  effect  is  more  acceptable 
than  a  precise  pronunciation  such  as  would  be  given  if  the  syllables 
were  accented.  For  example:  OI&5I  3Jf  (tu  thu  boy)  rapidly  and 
indefinitely  uttered  would  be  more  acceptable  to  ordinary  ears  than 
Dl  &3lDJf  (too  thee  boy)  precisely  uttered.  In  fact,  in  all  unaccented 
syllables  I  is  better  than  a  precise  vowel,  f  and  1  should  be  given 
oi  I  and  1,  but  I  is  better  than  an  incorrect  £  or  1. 

MR.  LYON  :  That  does  not  differ  materially  from  the  sound  of 
u  in  up  as  we  usually  hear  it. 

DR.  BELL:  It  is  an  indefinite  sound,  somewhat  like  that,  but 
more  like  er  in  her. 

MR.  CROUTER:  Don't  we  get  that  effect  in  the  word  "carpet" 
by  dropping  out  the  vowels  ? 


io8 

DR.  BELL:  Yes,  we  can  use  this  indefinite  sound  (I)  in  place  oi 
the  r. 

MR.  CROUTER  :  I  was  not  speaking  of  r,  but  take  any  case,  the 
consonants  may  be  held  together  in  a  word  and  you  pass  over  from 
one  consonant  to  the  other  and  this  indefinite  vowel  sound  is 
produced. 

DR.  BELL:  Yes,  it  usually  occurs  as  a  transitional  effect.  For 
example:  In  the  last  syllable  of  "  carpet  "  carelessly  uttered. 

Miss  BLACK:  What  sound  do  you  give  the  final  y  ? 

DR.  BELL:     Give  me  a  word,  Miss  Black. 

Miss  BLACK:    Well,  "Mary." 

DR.  BELL:  f  (/in  it).  I  would  write  the  word  9Ild>f,  al- 
though many  Americans  say  9[fd>f.  When  the  letter  r  occurs  be- 
tween two  vowels,  and  the  first  one  is  long,  English  usage  de- 
mands the  insertion  of  voice-glide  (I)  between  the  long  vowel  and 
the  medial  r,  thus  fairy  (3lHi)f)  weary  (Sliwf)  fiery  (33ri(i>f)  fury 
(3011(1)1),  etc. 

When  the  letter  r  occurs  finally  or  before  a  consonant,  for  ex- 
ample— ear,  poor,  farm,  warm,  etc. ;  the  r  (d>)  is  not  pronounced. 
Even  elocutionists  demand  only  a  gliding  of  the  tongue  toward  the 
position  for  r  (x).  Thus  I*  Dl*  3]«8  &}*&  etc. 

When  deaf  children,  however,  attempt  to  give  glide  r  (*),  they 
exaggerate  the  effect  and  produce  a  consonant  sound.  (Ct>),  thus 
Id)  DlW  33Ci>8  3JU>8,  etc. 

The  effect  is  at  once  recognized  as  peculiar.  Defective  combina- 
tions usually  result  in  such  words  as  33Ci>l9  (farum)  3JCi)|9  (warum), 
etc.  When  the  consonant  r  itself  is  defective,  as  it  often  is,  for 
example :  C*)°  or  <i>c,  the  effecl;  is  so  unnatural  that  it  would  be 
better  to  omit  the  r  altogether.  Many  hearing  people  fail  to  give 
an  r  of  any  sort  in  such  words  as  the  above,  and  I  would  recommend 
the  omission  of  the  glide  r  (x)  in  teaching  the  deaf.  The  voice 
glide  (I)  answers  every  purpose  and  is  easily  uttered.  When  a  deaf 
child  gives  that  in  place  of  (*)  no  one  but  an  elocutionist  could 
tell  the  difference.  For  example:  Let  the  child  give  II  (ear)  Dll  (poor) 
33l8  (farm)  J3JI9  (warm).  Indeed,  in  the  last  cases  even  the  voice 
glide  itself  may  be  omitted  without  any  very  marked  peculiarity. 
Thus:  338  (fahm)  J3J9  (wawm).  This  surely  would  be  more 
acceptable  than  the  pronunciation  usually  given  by  deaf  children, 
for  these  words. 

When  r  occurs  as  a  final  and  the  next  word  begins  with  a 
vowel,  a  consonant  r  is  usually  required.  6511  would  be  to  ordinary 


ears  a  satisfactory  pronunciation  of  the  word  "there,"  but  if  you 
put  that  into  a  sentence  where  the  next  word  commences  with  a 
vowel  (for  example,  "there  is,"  etc.),  then  &5II  fti5  would  not  prove 
acceptable,  and  we  must  introduce  a  consonant  r  thus  &5tKi)l2i5. 

Now  it  is  a  difficult  thing  for  a  teacher  to  get  a  deaf  child 
to  say  0]OI«  without  an  exaggeration  of  the  glide  r  element  that 
produces  an  unnatural  effect,  but  any  child  can  give  0]Ol  which  is 
perfectly  satisfactory  to  most  ears.  If  you  didn't  know  there  was 
no  r  there,  you  would  never  find  it  out.  I  would  have  the  deaf 
child  give  simply  the  indefinite  vowel  (I)  for  the  whole  syllable  er 
in  such  words. 

In  English  utterance  two  other  glides  (K  and  *)  are  employed  in 
the  diphthongal  vowels. 

In  forming  x  the  tongue  glides  towards  the  position  for  O  (y) 
or  I  (ee) ;  and  in  forming  *  the  glide  is  towards  the  position  for  3 
(w)  or  1  (oo.)  Diphthongal  sounds  present  great  difficulties  to  the 
deaf  and  are  rarely  given  correctly.  Both  the  initial  and  final  posi- 
tions are  apt  to  be  wrong,  and  a  strong  tendency  is  manifested  to 
prolong  the  final  instead  of  the  initial  part  of  the  diphthong. 

My  plan  of  correction  is  to  write  what  the  pupils  do,  so  that 
they  may  see  the  difference  between  the  sounds  they  actually  utter 
and  those  we  wish  them  to  give. 

My  father  has  not  provided  a  sufficient  number  of  glide  symbols 
to  enable  us  to  represent  the  incorrect  sounds  uttered  by  our  pupils, 
and  I  have,  therefore,  found  it  advisable  to  express  glides  by  vowel 
symbols  upon  a  small  scale.  This  gives  us  a  sufficient  number  of 
forms  without  introducing  new  symbols.  For  the  deaf  I  write  the 
diphthongs  [*  3*  Js}*  3*  as  Cr3fJfM3*. 

The  common  defect  of  prolongation  ot  the  final  element  can  be 
expressed  as  Cl  3l  if  Ji  A.  and  when  the  combination  is  dis-svllabic 
this  becomes  Cf3ljltf31. 

In  teaching  such  a  diphthong  as  3f,  I  commence  in  the  following 
manner: 

Say  3.     Now  say  I.     Now  313131,  etc. 
Now  3l3l3l,  etc.     Now  Jfjfjr,  etc. 

Whatever  variations  occur  during  the  course  of  the  lesson  are 
represented  symbolically,  and  the  pupil  is  requested  to  repeat  them 
in  contrast  with  the  correct  sound.  Thus:  "You  said  3l.  Doit 
again  31 31 31  etc."  "  Now  give  3l3f3l3r  etc."  "  Now  you  said  If. 
Try  it  again  II If  If  etc.  Now  give  3r  3llr  etc." 

The  principle  of  correction  is :  -write  -what  the  pupil  does,  and 


no 

then  get  him  to  repeat  the  incorre &  sound  in  contrast  with  the  sound 
vou  wish  him  to  utter. 

I  do  not  think  it  is  possible  to  obtain  great  accuracy  of  vowel 
quality  without  the  use  of  symbols  of  some  sort  for  incorrect  sounds, 
and  the  adoption  of  the  principle  referred  to  above.  The  symbols 
of  visible  speech  are  of  great  utility  for  this  purpose.  Indeed,  I 
believe  them  to  be  essential.  Without  them  you  can  only  hope  for 
approximations  to  the  correct  vowel  positions.  Without  them 
your  great,  and  indeed  your  only  reliance  must  be  upon  imitation. 
In  any  case  the  power  of  imitation  should  be  developed  by  con- 
stant practice  before  a  mirror. 

I  always  teach  (f  (a)  and  3r  (i)  in  contrast  with  one  another,  so 
as  to  make  the  pupil  familiar  with  the  difference.  These  diphthongs 
are  apt  to  be  pronounced  alike  as  If  or  if.  For  example:  A  pupil 
will  say  i3ifCCOif,  instead  of  i33f&>GJ[f  (fine  day).  For  the  same 
reason  I  teach  J*  and  3l  in  contrast. 

In  giving  Jf,  pupils  generally  give  too  small  an  aperture  between 
the  lips  for  the  initial  position.  I  think  this  results  chiefly  from 
the  spelling  (oi).  They  try  to  give  an  6  followed  by  short  /'. 
Indeed,  very  often  the  o  is  followed  by  glide  oo,  thus  making  a  dis- 
syllabic compound  something  like  Ht .  For  example :  DHf  (bo-ee) 
for  DJP  (boy). 

Sounds  that  differ  only  slightly  from  one  another  should,  I 
think,  be  taught  together,  in  contrast,  as  the  best  means  of  securing 
a  distinction.  Thus :  teach  (f  3r  and  Jf  as  one  group,  and  }*  and  3* 
as  another. 

I  would  also  practice  such  compounds  as  Q"'  3f>  Jfi  (vowels  in 
layer,  liar  and  lawyer  written  COJfi  or  COJOl).  Jli  3^«  (vowels  in 
sower  and  sour).  In  such  words  as  sore  and  more  there  is  no 
glide.  Many  persons  say  £33-1  SK  My  father  would  write  15}* 
9J*,  but  I  should  recommend  a  still  larger  aperture  in  teaching  the 
deaf.  I  would  write  UJi  and  SJi  (saw-er  maw-er)  for  "sore  "  and 
"more,"  and  U3-1I  and 9}tl  (so-er  and  mo-er)  for  "sower "  (one  who 
sows)  and  "mower"  (one  who  mows). 

It  is  very  difficult  to  get  a  deaf  child  to  distinguish  I  from  I  (e 
in  pet,  from  a  in  pat).  It  is  important,  however,  that  the  attempt 
should  be  made,  as  the  slight  difference  of  sound  often  makes  a 
great  difference  in  the  sense.  For  example :  Met,  mat,  bet,  bat, 
etc.  The  distinction  is  best  obtained,  I  think,  by  practice  before  a 
mirror. 


Ill 

Vowels  are  so  difficult  of  acquirement  by  the  deaf  with  accu- 
racy and  precision  that  we  may  consider  it  fortunate  that  usage 
tolerates  considerable  latitude  in  the  pronunciation  of  these  elements. 

The  precise  shade  of  vowel  quality  given  in  one  part  of  the 
country  is  not  heard  in  another.  Travelers  in  England  are  startled 
by  the  cry  CT[3  Ol  O\B  Ol  ("  Keb,  sir,  keb,  sir,")  from  the  cabmen 
in  London.  The  Irishman  says  "oi"  for  I.  Many  Americans  say 
for  3Ii!UD>  (first)  and  everywhere  we  hear  IKCH  for 
,  no). 

Certain  defects  are  recognized  as  individual,  or  family 
peculiarities  of  speech ;  others  are  characteristic  of  whole  commu- 
nities and  constitute  a  provincial  utterance  or  dialect  •  and  still 
others  reveal  the  nationality  of  the  foreigner. 

I  think  I  am  pretty  safe  in  saying  that  the  "  standard  pronun- 
ciation," like  the  "average  school  boy,"  nowhere  exists!  We  all 
depart  from  it  in  a  greater  or  less  degree.  Study  the  character  and 
extent  of  the  variations  that  exist  among  educated  people  and  don't 
be  too  critical  of  defects  of  your  pupils  if  they  fall  within  those 
limits. 

The  pronunciation  of  the  consonant  elements  of  speech  is  so 
uniform  in  all  English-speaking  countries  that  very  slight  variations 
are  received  as  foreign  sounds,  while  greater  departures  from  the 
standard  convey  the  idea  that  the  vocal  organs  are  themselves 
defective.  People  speak  of  "curing"  such  defects,  as  though  they 
were  diseases,  or  the  result  of  malformations,  requiring  the  surgeon's 
care.  Vowel  peculiarities,  on  the  other  hand,  fail  to  convey  this 
idea  and  are  more  suggestive  of  provincial  or  foreign  utterance. 

Small-aperture  vowels,  like  1  or  I,  are  given  everywhere  with 
substantial  uniformity,  and  any  marked  deviation  from  the  standard 
is  suggestive  of  foreign  birth.  Vowels  of  larger  aperture  are  con- 
stantly mispronounced  by  the  best  educated  people.  Even  culti- 
vated Bostonians,  for  example,  sometimes  call  their  own  city  D]£5OiC5 
(Bahston).  Unusual  variations  from  the  standard  if  of  slight  extent, 
are  suggestive  of  provincialism,  and  where  the  departure  is  greater 
the  speaker  is  supposed  to  be  a  foreigner. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  exactitude  of  pronunciation  is 
more  necessary  with  certain  sounds  than  with  others.  Consonants 
and  small-aperture  vowels  in  accented  syllables  must  be  accurately 
given;  whereas  considerable  latitude  may  be  allowed  in  the  pro- 
nunciation of  medium  and  large-aperture  vowels,  and  of  diphthongal 
sounds  wherever  they  occur.  This  is  fortunate,  for  these  are  just  the 


112 

sounds  that  are  most  difficult  of  acquirement  with  definiteness  by 
our  pupils. 

1  would  direct  your  attention  to  the  very  great  importance  of 
training  a  child  to  retain  a  position  unchanged,  until  directed  to  re- 
linquish it.  The  common  practice  of  pronouncing  an  element  of 
speech  and  then  immediately  relinquishing  the  position  leads  the 
child  to  consider  the  relinquishment  as  an  essential  feature  of  the 
sound.  In  speaking  he  relinquishes  one  position  before  he  assumes 
the  next,  thus  producing  a  transitional  effect  or  glide  sound  between 
the  elements.  This  sound  appears  either  in  a  vocal  (i)  or  non-vocal 
(>)  form,  according  as  the  elements  themselves  are  vocal  or  non- 
vocal. 

Ask  the  average  deaf  child  to  say  BL&l&L  (bee-bee-bee)  and 
you  will  obtain  0ili3ili3ifi.  The  tongue  is  raised  for  I  and  de- 
pressed for  9  so  that  it  moves  up  and  down  for  every  syllable. 
Pronounce  DlDlDl  yourself  and  you  will  find  that  the  tongue  does 
not  move  at  all  but  remains  continuously  in  the  I  position.  The 
movement  is  entirely  labial.  This  defect  of  combination  runs  through 
all  the  elements. 

The  great  principle  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  that  positions  do  not 
merely  succeed  one  another  like  the  letters  on  a  printed  page,  but 
overlap.  A  position  must  be  retained  until  the  mouth  is  in  position 
for  the  next  element. 

In  teaching  the  principle  of  combination  to  a  deat  child,  I 
would  recommend  you  to  commence  with  the  vowel  f.  Get  your 
pupil  to  prolong  I  while  you  open  and  close  his  lips  with  your  fin-t 
gers.  At  once  you  get  0I0IDI.  Direct  the  child's  attention  to  the 
fad  that  the  tongue  remains  in  the  f  position  all  the  time,  and  in 
fad  that  it  does  not  move  at  all.  Then  get  him  to  manipulate  his 
own  lips  and  then  to  produce  the  effect  without  manipulation. 
When  he  can  do  this  well,  try  QlGJl,  etc.,  and  the  analogy  of  the 
symbols  will  help  him  to  give  the  correct  effect.  Let  him  have  the 
idea  ot  retaining  the  f  position  continuously  while  he  moves  the  point 
of  the  tongue.  Then  try  QlQl,  etc. ,  retaining  the  I  position  while  he 
moves  the  back  of  the  tongue.  The  chief  difficulties  of  articulation 
teaching  lie  not  so  much  with  the  elementary  sounds  as  with  their 
combination  into  syllables.  A  deaf  child  may  be  perfectly  able  to 
give  every  element  and  yet  be  unable  to  utter  a  sentence  that  is  in- 
telligible to  ordinary  people. 

The  most  important  point,  I  think,  in  the  whole  of  articulation 
teaching  is  the  thorough  comprehension  by  teachers  and  pupils  ot 
the  law  of  combination. 


ARTICULATION  TEACHING. 

I  should  like  in  conclusion  to  say  a  few  words  upon  the  general 
subject  of  articulation  teaching.  We  don't  know  yet  how  best  to 
teach  speech  to  the  deaf.  If  we  did  we  wouldn't  be  here.  We  have 
come  here  to  learn  from  one  another  in  the  hope  of  improving  our 
methods  of  teaching.  Now  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  more 
nearly  we  can  pattern  our  methods  of  teaching  after  the  method 
adopted  by  nature  i'n  teaching  speech  to  hearing  children,  the  better 
should  be  our  results.  It  is  certainly  the  case  that  the  methods 
usually  employed  in  schools  for  the  deaf  do  not  even  approximate  to 
the  nursery  method  of  the  hearing  child.  Not  one  of  the  little  hear- 
ing children  whom  you  may  have  left  at  home  commenced  by  learn- 
ing elementary  sounds.  Mothers  do  not  begin  with  elementary 
sounds  and  then  combine  them  into  syllables  and  words.  The 
mother  speaks  whole  sentences  even  to  the  infant  in  arms.  The 
child  listens  and  listens,  until  a  model  is  established  in  the  mind. 
Then  the  child  commences  to  imitate,  not  elementary  sounds,  but 
whole  words.  Indeed,  people  grow  up  to  adult  life  without  ever 
having  uttered  elementary  sounds,  and  when  they  do  come  to  study 
them,  it  is  for  the  purpose  of  improving  and  perfecting  their  speech. 
With  hearing  persons  the  elements  come  last,  not  first.  They  con- 
stitute the  final,  not  the  initial,  exercises  of  articulation.  I  would 
commend  this  fact  to  the  serious  attention  of  the  members  of  this 
Association.  The  question  is  often  in  my  mind  whether  we  are  not 
making  a  radical  mistake,  and  whether  it  would  not  be  better  to 
commence  with  sentences  and  whole  words,  rather  than  with  ele- 
ments, and  accept  imperfect  speech  from  little  deaf  children  as  we 
do  from  hearing  children. 


H4 

If  you  copy  the  natural  process,  what  you  want  first  is  the  use 
of  speech,  and  then  perfect  the  articulation  as  the  child  grows  up. 
In  this  connection  I  would  commend  to  your  notice  the  paper  of  Dr. 
Greenberger  upon  the  Word  Method,  which  constitutes  the  first 
Circular  of  Information.  This  is  an  entire  reversal  of  the  position 
I  assumed  when  I  entered  upon  the  work  of  articulation  teaching. 
But  the  more  I  thiftk  of  it,  the  more  I  am  convinced  that  a  great 
principle  is  involved.  Words  first  and  elements  afterwards.  I  re- 
cognize, however,  that  there  are  real  practical  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  its  application  to  the  deaf.  If  you  once  allow  a  deaf  child  to  speak 
in  a  defective  manner  is  there  not  danger  that  the  defective  pronun- 
ciation will  become  habitual  ?  This  is  a  serious  objection  and  should 
be  carefully  considered.  In  the  case  of  the  hearing  child,  a  correct- 
ive element  is  always  present,  he  hears.  He  hears  the  model  pro- 
nunciation constantly  used  by  those  about  him,  and  also  hears  his 
own  imperfect  babble.  His  ear  forms  a  medium  of  comparison 
whereby  he  perceives  the  relation  of  the  sounds  he  utters  to  those  he 
desires  to  make.  In  the  case  of  the  deaf  child  we  might  anticipate 
that  a  corrective  element  would  also  be  present  if  he  could  see 
speech  as  others  hear  it. 

(1)  He  must  see  the  model  pronunciation  constantly  and  clearly 
repeated  so  as  to  fix  it  in  his  mind,  to  take  the  place  of  the  conver- 
sation that  goes  on  in  the  presence  of  the  hearing  child  ;  and 

(2)  He  must  see  his  own  imperfect  speech  so  that  he  may  per- 
ceive the  relation  of  the  sounds  he  utters  to  the  correct  pronun- 
ciation. 

It  may  be  well  to  consider  how  far  it  may  be  possible  for  us  to 
bring  about  these  conditions. 

i.  Speech-reading  fulfills  the  first  condition  only  in  part.  The 
visible  movements  of  the  mouth  may  recall  the  model  pronunci- 
ation to  the  mind  of  the  deaf  child,  when  once  acquired,  but  it 
does  not  exhibit  the  pronunciation  with  clearness  and  definiteness  to 
the  eye.  If  we  could  supplement  speech-reading  by  books  and 
periodicals  printed  in  phonetical  type,  a  great  advantage  would  be 
gained.  In  Germany  and  Italy,  where  oral  methods  are  most  suc- 
cessful, spelling  corresponds  to  pronunciation,  and  this  first  condi- 
tion is,  therefore,  fulfilled  by  the  ordinary  literature  of  those  countries. 
In  English-speaking  countries,  however,  ordinary  literature  is  of 
comparatively  little  use  in  impressing  upon  the  memory  of  the  dear 
child  the  correct  pronunciation  of  the  language.  Our  spelling  is  so 
irregular  and  unphonetical  that  even  hearing  people  often  have  to 


resort  to  a  dictionary  to  ascertain  how  a  word  should  be  pro- 
nounced. What  we  most  need  is  reading  matter  for  our  pupils  in 
which  the  words  are  spelt  as  they  are  pronounced.  In  two  hours 
a  deaf  child  can  read  as  many  words  as  a  hearing  child  hears  in 
the  course  of  a  day,  and  if  the  spelling  only  corresponded  to  the 
pronunciation,  reading  would  fix  the  model  in  his  mind,  and  speech- 
reading  would  constantly  recall  it.  Any  kind  of  phonetical  alpha- 
bet would  do  for  this  purpose  ;  but  Visible  Speech  would  be  especi- 
ally advantageous  because  it  would  be  possible  through  this  agency 
to  fulfill  the  second  condition  also. 

2.  The  deaf  child  must  see  the  relation  between  the  sound  he 
utters  and  the  correct  sounds  of  speech.  I  know  of  no  other 
means  of  accomplishing  this  end  than  Visible  Speech  or  the  Lyon 
Manual, — but  they  will  do  it. 

I  think  with  these  agencies  we  would  have  a  corrective  element 
that  would  lead  to  improvement  of  speech  as  the  child  grows  up 
and  permit  of  the  adoption  of  a  more  natural  method  of  teaching 
than  now  exists. 

I  throw  out  these  thoughts  as  suggestions  merely,  for  I  recog- 
nize, of  course,  the  great  difficulty  of  carrying  them  practically  into 
execution.  I  would  have  you,  however,  appreciate  the  importance 
of  the  principle  involved,  and  consider  whether  in  the  face  of  the 
difficulties  that  present  themselves,  it  would  be  better  to  abandon  the 
principle,  or  study  the  difficulties  and  attempt  to  remove  them.  I 
think  that  that  method  which  conforms  most  nearly  to  the  method 
whereby  hearing  children  acquire  speech,  will  be  most  worthy  of 
adoption  by  teachers  of  the  deaf.  With  these  remarks  I  shall  close, 
1  shall  now  be  glad  to  answer  any  questions. 

MR.  LYON  :  I  would  like  to  know  if  the  symbols  on  your  charts 
represent  the  elements  to  which  you  would  reduce  all  the  English 
words  ? 

DR.  BELL:  Yes.  There  are  some  elements  not  usually  con- 
sidered as  English.  The  German  ch  (C)  for  instance,  and  its  cor- 
responding vocal  (€).  I  would  recommend  that  those  should  be 
taught  to  every  deaf  child,  because  they  enter  into  the  composition 
of  JO  (wh)  and  i  (06)  and,  indeed,  form  the  key  to  the  English 
vowels. 

MR.  LYON:     I  notice  that  the  glide  r  is  omitted. 

DR.  BELL:  Yes.  And  I  consider  that  as  a  very  important 
matter.  I  have  found  it  a  very  difficult  thing  to  get  glide  r  from  a 
deaf  child  without  gross  exaggeration  of  the  movement  of  the 


n6 

tongue,  and  I  consider  it  entirely  unnecessary  to  bother  him  about 
it.  I  would  recommend  substituting  for  glide  r  a  mere  indefinite 
murmur  of  the  voice  (i).  If  you  give  that  to  a  deaf  child  in  place  o^ 
glide  r  you  will  get  something  which  passes  current  for  good 
speech,  although  there  is  no  suspicion  of  an  r  about  it. 

MR.  LYON:  I  see  in  the  symbols  that  the  indefinite  position 
represents  voice  glide.  Is  it  the  same  thing  ? 

DR.  BELL:  The  same  thing.  What  I  mean  to  say  is,  that 
when  we  give  a  deaf  child  the  indefinite  voice  mark  in  place  of  glide 
r,  we  obtain  from  him  a  sound  that  approximates  very  closely  to 
the  vernacular  effe£t. 

Miss  YALE  :     I  believe  in  Dr.  Bell's  theory  thoroughly. 


VOWEL  THEORIES. 

BY  ALEXANDER  GRAHAM   BELL. 

Read  before  the  National  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  April  15,  1879,  and  reprinted 
from  the  American  Journal  of  Otology,  Vol.  I.,  July,  1879. 

Hemholtz  has  shown  that  an  educated  ear  perceives  a  combina- 
tion of  musical  tones  where  an  uneducated  ear  supposes  a  single 
sound ;  and  his  theory,  that  the  feeble,  usually  unheard,  musical 
tones  are  the  cause  of  the  peculiar  sensation  we  term  the  "quality" 
of  a  sound,  seems  now  to  be  universally  accepted  as  correct. 

According  to  this  theory,  a  vowel  is  a  musical  compound,  con- 
sisting of  a  mixture  of  musical  tones  of  different  pitches  and  vari- 
ous intensities.  The  lowest,  or  fundamental  tone,  gives  the  pitch 
to  the  whole,  and  is  determined  by  the  rate  of  vibration  of  the 
vocal  cords. 

It  is  certainly  the  case  that  an  attentive  ear  can  perceive,  in 
every  vowel  uttered,  a  number  of  distinct  musical  sounds  ;  but  the 
hypothesis  that  the  ear  perceives  them  only,  and  that  it  is  unable 
to  appreciate  the  quality  of  the  vowel  directly,  should  be  received 
with  caution.  According  to  Helmholtz,  the  human  ear  is  incapable 
of  perceiving  any  other  than  simple  pendular  vibrations,  and  it  is 
therefore  under  the  necessity  of  splitting  up  a  vowel  into  its  con- 
stituent musical  elements  before  it  can  perceive  its  quality. 

Thus  Helmholz  holds  that  vowels  are  inferred  from  the  pres- 
ence of  certain  musical  tones,  and  that  they  do  not  give  rise  in  the 
ear  to  distinct  sensations  of  their  own. 

The  rods  of  Corti  are  supposed  by  him  to  analyze  the  vibrations 
imparted  to  the  liquid  of  the  internal  ear,  so  as  to  split  them  up 
into  the  pendular  motions  of  which  they  are  theoretically  com- 
posed; but  it  cannot  be  received  as  proven  that  the  simultaneous 
vibration  of  certain  of  these  rods  gives  rise  to  the  perception  of 
the  quality  of  a  sound  ;  for  Pritchard  and  other  comparative  anat- 
omists have  shown  that  the  rods  of  Corti  are  entirely  wanting  in 
parrots  and  other  birds  that  imitate  and  therefore  perceive  the 
sounds  of  speech. 

Whether  or  not,  however,  there  exists  in  the  human  ear  an  apparatus 
for  taking  direct  cognizance  of  the  quality  of  a  sound,  Helmholtz 
has  proved,  by  the  synthesis  of  vowel  sounds,  that  there  exists  the 
most  intimate  relation  between  certain  combinations  of  musical  tones 
and  the  quality  of  a  sound.  Not  only  are  such  tones  audible  whenever 
a  vowel  is  produced,  but  the  converse  is  equally  true  ;  and  we  may 
therefore  assume,  at  least  as  a  working  hypothesis,  that  vowels  are 

117 


u8 

compound  musical  tones.  I  shall  follow  the  example  of  Ellis1  in 
terming  the  musical  constituents  of  vowel  sounds,  "partial"  tones, 
to  designate  their  subordination  to  the  compound  as  a  whole. 

The  illustrations  of  vowel-synthesis  given  by  Helmholtz  show  vowels 
composed  of  tones  whose  frequencies  are  multiples  of  the  fundamental 
and  the  question  arises:  "Are  the  upper  partial  tones,  which  are 
characteristic  of  vowel  sounds,  invariably  harmonics  of  the  fundamental 
of  the  voice,  or  are  they  independent  of  it?" 

Again  :  "  If  they  are  harmonics,  do  they  uniformly  bear  the  same 
relation  to  the  fundamental,  whatever  the  pitch  of  the  voice  may  bef" 

These  questions  at  first  sight  seem  to  receive  different  answers, 
accordingly  as  we  attempt  to  solve  the  problem  (i)  from  a  con- 
sideration of  the  organic  formation  of  the  vowel  sounds,  or  from  an 
examination  of  the  records,  (2)  of  the  phonautograph,  and  (3)  of 
the  phonograph.  The  results  common  to  all  three  methods  of  investi- 
gation, however,  point  to  a  theory  of  vowel  sounds  in  close  accordance 
with  the  ideas  of  Helmholtz,  as  expressed  by  Ellis  in  his  "Early 
English  Pronunciation,  "  Part  IV.,  p.  1277. 

In  examining  these  questions,  it  may  be  convenient  to  designate,  by 
distinct  names,  two  varieties  of  Helmholtz's  vowel  theory,  concerning 
which  there  has  been  of  late  considerable  discussion  : 

The  fixed  pitch  hypothesis. — The  upper  partial  tones  characteristic 
of  vowel  sounds  may  be  supposed  to  have  fixed,  invariable  pitches, 
and  the  element  of  pitch  may  be  considered  the  distinguishing  feature. 

The  harmonic  hypothesis. — According  to  this  hypothesis,  the  upper 
partial  tones  characteristic  of  vowels  are  always  harmonics  of  the 
fundamental,  varying  in  pitch  with  it,  the  vowel  characteristic  lying 
in  the  predominance  of  certain  harmonics. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  difference  between  these  hypotheses,  let 
us  consider  for  a  moment  the  musical  composition  of  the  vowel  6. 

Helmholtz  states  that  he  produced  a  very  fine  6  by  combining  the 
sounds  of  certain  tuning-forks  whose  rates  of  vibration  were  multiples 
of  that  of  the  lowest  fork.  The  prime  tone  was  Bb;  the  2d,  3d,  and 
5th  forks  were  allowed  to  sound  feebly,  and  the  sound  of  the  4th  fork 
was  brought  out  much  more  strongly.  In  this  experiment,  then,  the 
characteristic  tone  (V)  was  the  double  octave  of  the  fundamental. 
Now,  if  the  fixed  pitch  hypothesis  be  correct,  the  vowel  6  should  always 
be  distinguished  by  a  partial  tone  of  the  (V)  ;  whereas,  if  the  harmonic 
hypothesis  be  correct,  the  predominant  partial  should  vary  in  pitch 
with  the  pitch  of  the  voice,  and  be  always  its  double  octave. 

I.     Vowel    Theories,    considered  in    Relation    to   the    Organic  For- 
mation of  Vowel  Sounds? 

When  we  examine  the  vocal  organs  we  find  numerous  cavities  located 
in  the  thorax,  larynx,  pharynx,  nares,  and  in  the  mouth.  The  air  in 


1  The  phraseology  of  Ellis  will  be  used  throughout  this  paper.  For  definitions,  etc., 
see  Ellis's  translation,  "  The  Sensations  of  Tone,"  footnote  to  page  36. 

*  In  all  references  to  the  organic  formation  of  speech  sounds,  I  adopt  the  phraseology 
of  Melville  Bell.  For  definitions,  etc.,  see  "Visible  Speech :  The  Science  of  Universal 
Alphabetic*." 


each  cavity  has  a  tendency  towards  a  definite  rate  of  vibration,  and 
when  agitated  in  any  way  produces  its  resonance  tone. 

In  the  act  of  speech  the  air  is  set  in  vibration  in  all  these  cavities, 
the  resonance  tones  of  the  cavities  mingle  with  the  tones  due  to  the 
vibration  of  the  vocal  cords,  and  thus  produce  the  complex  sounds  of 
human  speech.  The  movements  of  the  tongue,  lips,  etc.,  modify  the 
shape  and  size  of  some  of  these  resonance  cavities,  and  thus  enable  us 
to  produce  sounds  the  musical  constituents  of  which  are  almost 
infinitely  variable  at  will.  The  constant  cavities  of  the  vocal  organs, 
the  shapes  of  which  are  determined  by  nature,  and  are  therefore  inde- 
pendent of  will,  probably  give  to  the  speaker's  voice  that  individuality 
of  tone  that  enables  us  to  pick  out  the  voice  of  one  speaker  from  a 
multitude  of  others,  while  the  variable  cavities  give  prominence  to 
partials  that  characterize  the  elements  of  spoken  language. 

The  cavities  of  the  mouth  are  chiefly  concerned  in  the  production 
of  vowel  quality.  When  a  vowel  position  is  assumed  by  the  vocal 
organs,  the  mouth-passage  is  slightly  constricted  at  some  particular 
part  (see  Fig.  i),  and  thus  two  resonance  cavities,  a  and  6,  are  estab- 


FIG.  i. 

lished,  the  interior  of  the  mouth  somewhat  resembling  in  shape  the 
interior  of  a  chamber  formed  by  placing  two  bottles  neck  to  neck,  the 
two  resonance  chambers  being  represented  by  the  bodies  of  the  bottles, 
and  the  constricted  passage  between  them  by  the  necks. 

I  have  found  that  the  resonance  tones  of  these  cavities  can  be 
readily  studied  in  the  following  manner: 

To  Study  the  Pitch  of  the  Posterior  Cavity  : 

Close  the  glottis,  assume  the  vowel  position,  and  tap  gently  against 
the  throat  with  the  thumb-nail.  (A  sound  will  be  perceived  some- 
what similar  to  that  produced  by  tapping  against  the  side  of  an  empty 
bottle).  A  double  pitch  will  be  noticed,  but  the  tone  due  to  the 
posterior  cavity,  a,  will  be  much  more  fully  produced  than  that  due 
to  the  other.  I  have  succeeded  in  making  the  sound  audible  to  large 
audiences  by  placing  the  forefinger  of  the  left  hand  against  the  throat, 
and  tapping  it  very  forcibly  with  the  thumb-nail  of  the  right  hand. 


I2O 

A  loud  sound  can  also  be   produced   by  striking    a   piece  of  wood  or 
cork  held  against  the  throat. 

To  Study  the  Pitch  of  the  Anterior  Cavity : 

Close  the  glottis,  assume  the  vowel  position,  and  strike  gently  a 
piece  of  wood,  or  cork,  held  in  front  of  the  mouth  or  against  the 
cheek.  I  have  found  that  an  ordinary  lead-pencil,  held  firmly  against 
one  side  of  the  mouth,  readily  yields  the  resonance  tone  of  the  mouth 
cavity  when  struck  with  the  thumb-nail.  A  double  tone  can  be  per- 
ceived, but  that  due  to  the  anterior  cavity  is  much  more  prominent 
than  the  other. 

The  tone  due  to  the  anterior  cavity  may  be  studied  alone,  by  depress- 
ing the  soft  palate  until  it  touches  the  back  of  the  tongue.  (This  is  the 
position  for  "ng"  in  the  word  "sing.")  Under  such  circumstances  the 
soft  palate  cuts  off  all  communication  with  the  air  in  the  posterior  cavity, 
and  a  single  resonance  accompanies  each  vowel  position.  When  the 
absolute  pitch  of  the  anterior  cavity  is  sought,  the  former  method  is 
preferable,  as  the  depression  of  the  soft  palate  alters  the  tone. 

The  tones  of  the  cavities  are  best  brought  out  by  contrast.  For 
instance,  assume  successively  the  positions  for  certain  vowels,  and 
observe  the  series  of  tones  produced,  first  by  the  anterior  cavity  and  then 
by  the  posterior  cavity.  The  difference  will  be  found  to  be  very  striking. 

When  the  vowel  positions  are  assumed  in  the  order  shown  by  Melville 
Bell,  in  his  "  Visible  Speech,"  the  tones  of  the  cavities  are  found  to  be 
arranged  in  regular  musical  sequence.  For  instance,  commencing  with 
the  high-front  vowel  (ee),  assume  successively  the  positions  for  the  other 
vowels  of  the  front  group.  A  double  series  of  resonances  will  be  obtained, 
so  arranged  that  the  tones  of  one  series  fall  in  pitch  while  the  tones  of 
the  other  rise.  The  same  remark  is  true  for  all  the  organic  groups  of 
unrounded  vowels.  The  pitch  of  the  anterior  cavity  falls  in  pitch  as  the 
vowel  aperture  is  enlarged,  and  that  of  the  posterior  cavity  rises.  It  is 
different,  however,  with  rounded  vowels.  For  instance,  take  the  high- 
front-round  vowel,  (ii  in  German),  and  assume  successively  the  positions 
for  all  the  vowels  of  that  group  down  to  the  low-front-wide-round  vowel. 
The  resonance  tones  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  cavities  both  rise  in  pitch 
as  the  vowel  aperture  is  enlarged.  All  the  groups  of  rounded  vowels  behave 
in  a  similar  manner. 

Again,  compare  unrounded  vowels  of  similar  aperture,  but  of  different 
organic  formations.  For  instance,  assume  successively  the  high-front, 
high-mixed,  and  high -back  vowel  positions  :  the  pitch  of  the  anterior 
cavity  falls  and  the  pitch  of  the  posterior  rises.  The  same  thing  occurs 
when  we  compare  the  mid-front,  mid-mixed,  and  mid-back  vowels,  or 
the  low-front,  low-mixed,  and  low-back  vowels. 

Comparing  in  like  manner  rounded  vowels  of  similar  aperture,  but  of 
different  organic  formation,  the  same  fact  is  noticed,  namely,  that  the 
further  back  in  the  mouth  the  point  of  constriction  is  located,  the  lower  is  the 
pitch  of  the  anterior  cavity  and  the  higher  the  pitch  of  the  posterior. 

Comparing  rounded  and  unrounded  vowels  of  the  same  organic  forma- 
tion and  aperture,  as,  for  instance,  the  high-front  vowel  (ee)  with  the  high- 


121 

front-rounded  vowel  (ii  in  German)  :  the  pitch  of  the  posterior  cavity  is 
the  same  for  both  vowels  ;  but  the  pitch  of  the  anterior  is  lower  for  the 
rounded  (ii)  than  for  the  unrounded  vowel  (ee). 

The  changes  of  pitch  produced  in  the  anterior  and  posterior  cavities 
of  the  mouth  become  intelligible  by  reference  to  familiar  facts  of  resonance. 
Thus  blow  across  the  mouth  of  an  empty  bottle,  and  its  resonance  tone 
can  be  perceived  in  the  rustling  sound  caused  by  the  breath.  Pour  water 
into  the  bottle,  and  the  pitch  of  the  tone  becomes  higher.  Place  your 
fingers  over  the  mouth  of  the  bottle,  so  as  to  reduce  the  size  of  the  open- 
ing, and  the  pitch  falls. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  pitch  of  a  cavity  falls  when  its  interior 
capacity  is  increased,  and  also  when  the  exterior  orifice  is  contracted. 

The  depression  of  the  tongue  (see  Fig.  i)  should,  therefore,  cause  an 
elevation  of  the  pitch  of  cavity  a,  and  a  lowering  of  that  of  cavity  b  ;  for 
the  air  space  in  cavity  b  becomes  larger  when  the  tongue  is  depressed  ;  and 
the  width  of  the  exterior  opening  (c)  of  cavity  a  is  at  the  same  time 
increased. 

Every  position  assumed  by  the  vocal  orgaus  determines  the  shape  and  size 
of  the  cavities  of  the  mouth,  and  thus  determines  the  absolute  pitch  of  the 
resonance  tones  proper  to  those  cavities. 

When  air  is  passed  through  the  mouth,  as  in  the  act  of  speech,  a  new 
element  enters  into  the  inquiry :  Is  vowel  quality  due  to  the  mouth 
position  assumed  by  the  organs,  or  is  it  caused  by  the  vibration  of  the  vocal 
cords  ?  If  the  former,  we  would  expect  that  the  characteristic  upper 
partials  would  bear  some  relation  to  the  resonance  tones  proper  to  the 
mouth  cavities  and  be  independent  of  the  pitch  of  the  voice.  If  the 
latter,  we  would  expect  them  to  bear  some  relation  to  the  pitch  of  the 
voice  and  be  independent  of  the  pitch  of  the  mouth  cavities. 

The  mere  passage  of  air  through  the  mouth  is  sufficient  to  bring  out 
the  characteristic  tones  of  the  mouth-cavities.  Vowel  quality  is  audible 
in  a  whisper,  and  can  even  be  produced  by  forcing  air  into  the  mouth  by 
means  of  a  pair  of  bellows. 

It  should  be  noted,  in  this  connection,  that  vowels  are  generally  pre- 
ceded in  actual  utterance  by  elements  that  approximate  very  closely  to 
consonants  in  their  organic  formation  ;  "  initial  vowels  "  being  preceded 
by  the  throat-shut  consonant — an  element  belonging  to  the  same  general 
class  as  p — T — K,  but  for  which  we  have  no  letter  in  the  English  language. 

Consonants  result  from  obstructive  positions  of  the  vocal  organs. 
During  the  utterance  of  speech  the  air  in  the  thorax  is  continually  com- 
pressed by  the  action  of  the  abdominal  muscles,  diaphragm,  and  muscles 
of  the  thorax,  so  that  when  the  emission  of  breath  is  momentarity  checked 
by  the  formation  of  some  obstructive  position,  the  cavities  behind  the 
point  of  constriction  become  inflated. 

Thus,  when  a  vowel  is  preceded  by  a  consonant — a  sudden  puff  of  air 
accompanies  the  relinquishment  of  the  consonantal  position — and  this 
puff,  passing  through  the  vowel-configuration,  is  sufficient  to  bring  out 
the  characteristic  tones  of  one  or  more  of  the  vowel-cavities  quite 
independently  of  the  vibration  of  the  vocal  cords. 

An  interesting  case  may  be  mentioned  which  bears  upon  this  point. 
Dr.  Moore,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  had  a  patient  whose  glottis  had  become 


122 

closed  by  disease.  For  twenty-five  years  the  man  had  been  dependent  for 
life  upon  air  supplied  through  a  tube  inserted  in  the  trachea.  He  could 
speak,  although  no  particle  of  air  could  be  forced  into  the  mouth  from 
the  lungs.  His  speech  was  perfectly  intelligible,  distinct,  and  even  loud, 
but  of  course  peculiar,  on  account  of  the  absence  of  voice.  He  could  not 
pronounce  vowel  sounds  by  themselves,  but  they  were  distinctly  audible 
when  preceded  by  consonants.  By  long  practice  the  man  had  acquired  the 
power  of  contracting  and  expanding  the  cavity  at  the  back  part  of  the 
mouth  to  a  wonderful  extent.  The  air  which  was  moulded  into  speech 
was  alternately  drawn  into  this  cavity  and  expelled  from  it  by  the  forcible 
action  of  the  muscles  of  the  pharynx,  soft  palate,  and  back  part  of  the 
tongue.  The  cavity  seemed  to  be  continually  in  a  state  of  change— alter- 
nately expanding  and  contracting  during  the  whole  progress  of  his 
articulation— so  that  the  man  could  speak  for  any  length  of  time  without 
pausing  for  breath  !  There  seemed,  however,  to  be  an  instinctive  remem- 
brance of  the  connection  between  breathing  and  speech,  for  he  was  in  the 
habit  of  expelling  air  through  the  tracheal  tube  while  he  was  speaking, 
and  of  remaining  silent  when  he  drew  air  into  the  lungs. 
Another  curious  case  has  been  made  public  by  Dr.  Moore.1 
A  patient  had  attempted  suicide  by  cutting  his  throat.  The  epiglottis 
was  severed  trom  the  larynx,  and,  when  the  man  attempted  to  articulate 
with  his  head  thrown  back,  the  air  passed  out  through  the  opening  in  his 
throat  instead  of  through  the  mouth.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
man  could  pronounce  intelligibly  certain  vowel  sounds.  Dr.  Moore 
satisfied  himself  and  other  observers  that  there  was  no  passage  of  air 
through  the  mouth,  by  artificially  closing  the  aperture  between  the 
epiglottis  and  back  of  the  pharynx. 

Dr.  Moore  argued  from  this  experiment  that  the  vowels  heard  were 
produced  in  the  larynx  instead  of  in  the  mouth.  This  position,  however, 
seems  to  be  untenable  ;  for  the  mouth  positions  for  these  vowels  might 
have  been  assumed  during  the  production  of  the  sounds,  and  the  tones 
of  the  mouth  cavities  would  be  brought  out  by  sympathetic  resonance 
without  the  necessity  of  passing  air  directly  through  the  mouth. 

In  whistling,  the  resonance  tone  of  the  anterior  cavity  is  brought  out 
so  loudly  as  to  constitute  a  clearly  recognizable  musical  tone.  A  careful 
observer  will  find  that  his  tongue  assumes  a  definite  position  for  each 
note  whistled,  and  a  person  can  be  made  to  whistle  an  air  unintentionally 
by  making  him  attempt  to  whistle  certain  vowels  in  succession.  In 
whistling,  it  seems  necessary  that  the  constricted  passage  in  the  mouth 
should  be  much  more  narrowed  than  in  actual  articulation,  and  that  the 
anterior  orifice  should  also  be  small. 

Sing  such  a  vowel  as  6  and  gradually  contract  the  passage  between 
the  back  of  the  tougue  and  the  soft  palate.  The  resonance  tone  of  o  will 
be  observed  to  grow  in  intensity  as  the  passage  is  contracted,  until  finally 
the  vowel  is  converted  into  a  vocalized  whistle.  By  labializing  the 
various  vowel  positions,  the  resonance  tone  of  the  anterior  cavity  can  b« 
brought  into  great  prominence,  and  a  whistle  produced  of  definite  fixed 
pitch  for  each  vowel-position. 

»See  Trans.  N.  Y.  State  Medical  Society  for  1872. 


123 

It  is  found  that  the  pitch  of  the  voice  can  be  varied  without  appreciably 
affecting  the  pitch  of  the  vowel-whistle.  It  is  certainly  difficult  to  bring 
out  the  whistle  of  65  or  6  upon  certain  pitches  of  the  voice,  but  the  high- 
front  and  high-mixed  vowels  labialized  can  be  easily  retained  in  a 
whistling  condition  while  the  voice  glides  upwards  or  downwards. 

In  studying  the  double  resonance  of  the  mouth-cavity,  I  have  been 
led  to  the  belief  that  the  fundamental  of  the  anterior  cavity  is  much  more 
essential  to  the  production  of  vowel  quality  than  that  of  the  posterior. 

If  we  prolong  the  sound  of  the  voice,  and  study  the  effect  of  the 
movement  of  the  different  vocal  organs  in  modifying  the  quality  of  the 
resultant  sound,  the  attention  will  be  arrested  by  the  fact  that  movements 
of  the  organs  further  forward  than  the  back  of  the  tongue  produce 
changes  of  vowel  quality,  but  that  motions  of  the  parts  behind  the  back 
of  the  tongue  do  not.  The  motions  of  such  parts  produce  quite  as  marked, 
if  not  more  marked,  changes  of  quality  than  in  the  former  case  ;  but  the 
resultant  sounds  would  not  ordinarily  be  designated  as  vowel  variations. 
We  should  rather  speak  of  them  as  changes  in  the  quality  of  the  voice. 
For  instance,  the  depression  of  the  soft  palate  produces  a  nasal  effect,  and 
the  movement  of  the  base  of  the  tongue  towards  the  back  of  the  pharynx 
produces  a  "  guttural  "  quality  of  voice. 

If  the  passage  between  the  base  of  the  tongue  and  the  back  of  the 
pharynx  be  contracted  laterally,  by  approximation  of  the  posterior  pillars 
of  the  soft  palate  (shown  by  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  2),  a  very  curious  change 


FIG.  2. 

of  quality  is  produced.  The  voice  acquires  a  metallic  ring,  somewhat  like 
the  tone  of  a  brass  wind  instrument.  When  the  posterior  pillars  of  the 
soft  palate  approximate  so  closely  as  almost  to  touch,  a  very  disagreeable 
reedy  quality  of  voice  results,  which  can  perhaps  be  best  described  as  a 
sort  of  "  Punch-and-Judy  "  effect. 

When  these  various  motions  are  produced  while  a  vowel  position  is 
assumed,  the  pitch  of  the  posterior  vowel  cavity  is  affected,  and  the 
quality  of  voice  accompanying  the  vowel  is  changed,  but  not  the  vowel 
itself. 

From  this  it  seems  evident  that  the  anterior  cavity  is  more  important 
in  determining  the  vowel  quality  than  the  posterior  cavity. 

An  examination  of  the  mechanism  of  speech  leaves  the  mind  decidedly 
biased  in  favor  of  the  fixed  pitch  theory  of  vowel  sounds. 

II.    Vowel  Theories,  considered  in  the  Light  of  Experiments  with  the 

Phonautograph. 

If  the  harmonic  hypothesis  be  correct,  and  vowels  are  composed  of 
partial  tones  whose  frequencies  are  multiples  of  J^at  of  the  fundamental 


124 

of  the  voice,  we  should  expect,  from  the  researches  of  Fourier,  that  the 
tracings  obtained  from  the  phonautograph  for  vowel  sounds  should  be 
invariably  periodic  curves,  whatever  the  pitch  of  the  voice  might  be. 
Whereas,  if  the  fixed  pitch  hypothesis  be  correct,  vowels  should  not  yield 
periodic  curves  when  tones  of  voice  are  used  which  do  not  contain  the 
fundamentals  of  the  mouth  cavities  amongst  their  harmonics. 

Furthermore,  if  the  harmonic  theory  be  correct,  the  predominant 
partial  tones,  bearing  always  a  fixed  ratio  to  the  fundamental  in  pitch  and 
loudness,  should  produce  for  each  vowel  sound  a  definite  form  or  forms  of 
curve,  which  should  be  constant  for  the  same  vowels  under  different 
pitches  of  the  voice. 

Early  in  1874  I  carried  on  a  series  of  experiments  with  an  improved 
form  of  phonautograph  devised  by  Mr.  Charles  A.  Morey,  of  the  Institute 
of  Technology,  in  Boston.  Vowel  sounds  were  sung  to  various  pitches, 
and  their  tracings  preserved  for  study  and  comparison.  The  results  were 
briefly  as  follows  : 

1.  Vowel  sounds  uniformly  produced  periodic  curves,  whatever  pitch 
of  voice  was  employed. 

2.  The  form  of  vibration  was  not  a  constant  characteristic. 

3.  Different  vowels  sung  to  different  pitches  often  seem  to  produce 
similar  curves. 

4.  Different  vowels  sung  to  the  same  pitch  traced  curves  of  different 
shapes,  but  they  were  not  sufficiently  marked  to  enable  the  vowels  to  be 
certainly  identified. 

5.  There  seemed  to  be  a  relation  between  the  complexity  of  the  tracing 
and  the  vowel   aperture  ;   close  aperture  vowels  yielding  curves  that 
approximated  very  closely  to  simple  pendular  vibrations. 

Thinking  that  the  results  obtained  with  Mr.  Morey's  phonautograph 
might  be  influenced  by  the  imperfection  of  the  apparatus  employed,  I 
tried  the  tympanic  membrane  of  a  human  ear  as  a  phonautograph .  Dr. 
Clarence  J.  Blake,  of  Boston,  suggested  this  idea,  and  kindly  prepared  a 
specimen  for  me,  with  which  I  carried  on  experiments.  The  tympanic 
membrane  and  the  ossicula  were  moistened  with  glycerine  and  water,  and 
a  stylus  of  hay  attached  to  the  incus  enabled  me  to  obtain  tracings  of 
vowel  vibrations  on  sheets  of  smoked  glass  passed  rapidly  underneath. 
The  results  obtained  with  this  apparatus  were  similar  to  those  obtained 
with  Mr.  Morey's  phonautograph,  and  I  found  it  impossible  to  recognize 
the  various  vowel  sounds  by  their  tracings.  I  do  not  know  the  full  results 
obtained  by  Prof.  Eli  W.  Blake  with  his  photographic  phonautograph,  but 
all  the  vowel  curves  drawn  by  him,  that  I  have  seen,  were  periodic  curves, 
and  seemed  to  support  the  conclusions  noted  above.  The  general  indica- 
tions of  all  forms  of  phonautograph  seem  to  favor  the  harmonic  hypothesis 
much  more  than  the  other.  The  unstable  character  of  the  vibration-forms 
might  be  explained  by  supposing  the  phases  of  the  harmonic  partials  to 
have  varied  at  different  times  ;  for  Helmholtz  has  shown  that  the  phases 
of  the  upper  partial  tones  are  immaterial  to  the  perception  of  vowel 
quality. 


*-o 

III.    Vmvel  Theories  considered  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Experiments 
with  the  Phonograph. 

Mr.  Edison's  phonograph  furnishes  us  with  an  instrument  which 
fortunately  can  be  utilized  in  the  solution  of  acoustical  problems  that  had 
before  seemed  insoluble  by  experimental  methods.  I  believe  that  this 
instrument  can  be  employed  as  a  means  of  ascertaining  the  truth  or 
falsity  of  the  harmonic  hypothesis. 

If  the  differences  of  vibration-forms  obtained  by  the  phonautograph 
for  the  same  vowel,  at  different  pitches,  merely  indicated  a  difference  of 
phase  of  the  upper  partials — the  same  harmonics  being  predominant  at 
each  pitch  of  the  voice — then,  if  the  relative  phases  of  the  harmonic 
partials  could  be  retained  when  the  pitch  of  the  voice  was  changed,  the 
same  vowel  at  different  pitches  should  be  characterized  by  the  same  curve  ; 
and  a  vibration  of  uniform  shape  impressed  upon  the  tinfoil  of  the 
phonograph  should  produce  the  same  quality  of  vowel,  whatever  the 
speed  of  rotation  of  the  cylinder  might  be. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  my  observations  with  the  phonautograph  were 
correct,  that  different  vowels  could  be  found,  which,  when  sung  to  different 
pitches,  produced  the  same  tracing,  then  a  vowel  sung  to  the  phonograph, 
while  the  cylinder  is  turned  at  a  certain  rate  of  speed,  should  be  repro- 
duced by  the  instrument  as  a  different  vowel  when  the  speed  was 
changed. 

WThen  Mr.  Preece  exhibited  the  phonograph  before  the  Physical 
Society  of  London,  on  the  2d  of  March,  1878,  I  suggested  that  this 
experiment  should  be  tried,  and  stated  my  belief  that  the  quality  as  well 
as  the  pitch  of  a  vowel  would  be  affected  by  the  speed  at  which  the 
cylinder  was  turned.  The  experiment  was  at  once  made,  and  the  results 
were  apparently  as  I  had  anticipated.  (See  Nature,  Vol.  XVII.,  p.  415.) 

Prof.  Fleeming  Jenkin  and  Prof.  J.  A.  Ewing  about  the  same  time 
performed  a  similar  experiment  in  Edinburgh,  but  arrived  at  quite 
different  results.  They  stated,  in  a  letter,  dated  March  nth,  1878,  that 
"  the  pitch  is,  of  course,  altered,  but  the  vowel  sounds  retain  their  quality 
when  the  barrel  of  the  phonograph  is  turned  at  very  different  rates. 
We  have  made  this  experiment  at  speeds  varying  from  about  three  to  one, 
and  we  can  detect  no  alteration  in  the  quality  of  the  sounds .' '  (See  Nature, 
Vol.  XVII.,  p.  384.) 

Such  a  result  determined  me  to  repeat  the  experiment  carefully  and  at 
leisure.  Mr.  Stroh,  the  eminent  mechanician  of  Hampstead  Road,  Lon- 
don, kindly  permitted  me  to  use  his  automatic  phonograph,  the  cylinder 
of  which  was  moved  by  clock-work.  Mr.  Alexander  J.  Ellis  was  present, 
and  assisted  during  the  experiments. 

We  found  it  extremely  difficult  to  use  the  phonograph  in  the  observa- 
tion of  minute  phonetical  distinctions.  While  we  differed  in  our  appre- 
ciation of  some  of  the  effects  produced,  we  agreed  in  thinking  that  vowel 
quality  was  affected  to  some  extent  by  the  speed  of  rotation;  but  we  were 
unable  to  determine  either  the  amount  or  the  nature  of  the  change. 
Among  other  results  of  these  experiments,  the  vowels  in  the  words 
mean,  mane,  men  were  often  reproduced  to  my  ear  as  approximately 
the  vowels  in  moon,  moan,  mtirn;  the  reproduced  ee  sounding  to  me  as 


126 

an  extremely  faint  66.  Mr.  Ellis,  however,  could  not  agree  with  me  in  this 
conclusion,  although  he  admitted  that  the  quality  of  these  vowels  was 
changed  in  the  reproduction. 

The  results  of  our  experiments  were  communicated  to  Nature  by 
Mr.  Ellis,  in  a  letter,  dated  the  3d  of  April,  1878.  (See  Vol.  XVII.,  p.  485.) 

Dr.  Clarence  J.  Blake,  of  Boston,  and  Prof.  Cross,  of  the  Institute  of 
Technology,  in  the  same  city,  were  as  much  struck  as  I  had  been  by  the 
statements  made  by  Fleeming  Jenkin  and  J.  A.  Ewing  concerning  the 
fixity  of  vowel  quality  under  varying  speeds  of  rotation,  and  repeated 
the  experiments  alluded  to.  Very  striking  differences  of  vowel  quality 
were  perceived  by  them.  Prof.  Cross  communicated  the  results  to 
Nature,  in  a  letter,  dated  Boston,  April  29th,  1878.  (See  Vol.  XVIII., 

P-  93-) 

This  called  forth  a  response  from  Edinburgh,  dated  May  29th,  1878. 
Fleeming  Jenkin  and  J.  A.  Ewing  modified  their  former  statements 
concerning  the  fixity  of  vowel  quality,  but  stated  that  "the  five  vowels 
a,  e,  i,  o,  u  (Italian),  pronounced  in  succession  are,  by  contrast  at  least, 
thoroughly  distinguishable  when  the  instrument  is  run  at  various  speeds, 
such  as  to  reproduce  the  sounds  at  all  the  pitches  within  the  compass  of 
the  average  human  voice.  That  no  marked  change  is  produced  in  the 
relative  values  of  the  vowels  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  neither  in 
public  nor  private  exhibitions  do  the  hearers  of  sentences,  alternately 
run  slow  and  fast,  suggest  that  the  vowels  have  changed  with  a  change 
of  speed.  .  .  .  We  do  not,  however,  think  that  our  instrument 
speaks  with  sufficient  distinctness  to  warrant  our  expressing  an  opinion 
as  to  the  constancy  of  quality  of  any  single  vowel  when  the  instrument 
is  run  at  various  speeds."  (See  Nature,  Vol.  XVIII.,  p.  167.) 

Since  the  publication  of  this  letter  no  notice  seems  to  have  been  taken 
of  this  most  interesting  subject  until  quite  recently,  when  Mr.  Preece 
and  Mr.  Stroh  revived  the  discussion  in  The  Electrician,  for  March  29, 
1879.  Amongst  other  results  they  observed  that  the  vowel  ah  is  con- 
verted by  a  slow  rotation  into  6,  and  that  the  converse  is  equally  true. 
This  fact  has  also  been  independently  discovered  in  America  by  Mr.  Fran- 
cis Blake  and  myself. 

I  have  at  various  times,  during  the  past  few  months,  made  experi- 
ments with  phonographs  of  different  kinds  to  determine  the  question  of 
vowel  change  or  fixity;  and  all  the  instruments  have  answered  the  ques- 
tion of  vowel  fixity,  under  changing  speeds  of  rotation,  in  the  negative. 

Some  experiments  made  by  Mr.  Francis  Blake  and  myself,  on  the 
fifteenth  day  of  March,  1879,  not  only  demonstrated  that  vowel  quality 
does  change  under  varying  speeds  of  rotation  of  the  cylinder  of  the 
phonograph,  but  also  manifested  the  direction  and  nature  of  the  change. 

The  ordinary  mode  of  conducting  the  experiment  previously,  was  as 
follows : 

A  vowel  was  sung  to  the  phonograph  while  the  cylinder  was  turned 
at  a  uniform  rate  of  speed.  The  sound  was  then  reproduced  from  the 
instrument,  while  the  barrel  was  turned  at  a  uniform,  but  different  rate 
of  speed.  When  the  experiment  was  conducted  in  this  way,  the  change 
of  vowel  quality  was  not  marked,  and  very  uncertain  results  were 
obtained. 


127 

The  experiment  was  now  varied  as  follows: 

A  vowel  was  sung  into  the  phonograh  in  a  high-pitched  voice,  while 
the  cylinder  was  turned  at  a  uniform  but  high  rate  of  speed.  When  the 
sound  was  reproduced,  the  cylinder  was  started  at  a  high  rate  of  speed 
and  allowed  to  come  gradually  to  rest.  At  once  the  nature  of  the  vowel 
change  became  manifest.  The  vowel  ah  changed  by  insensible  degrees 
to  awe,  oh,  and  finally  Od.  (The  same  effect  can  be  produced  by  gradually 
contracting  and  "rounding"  the  orifice  between  the  lips,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  back  of  the  tongue  is  slightly  raised.) 

The  vowel  ee  was  gradually  converted  into  the  German  vowel  u.  I 
am  perfectly  sure  of  the  labial  element  of  this  change,  but  am  uncertain 
whether  there  was  not  also  a  change  in  the  lingual  element.  The  repro- 
duction was  very  faint,  but  to  my  ear  the  vowel  finally  produced  was 
either  the  "  high-front-round  "  or  the  "  high-mixed-round  "  vowel. 

The  dipthongal  vowel  I  long  was  reproduced  approximately  as  "ow" 
in  "now."  The  exact  reproduction  seemed  to  be  as  follows:  The  initial 
sound  was  the  " low-back-wide-round  "  vowel,  gliding  finally  to  "high- 
mixed-round." 

A  long  series  of  experiments  with  various  vowels  satisfied  us  that  the 
reduction  of  the  speed  of  rotation  below  the  original  rate  at  which  the 
cylinder  was  turned,  occasions  an  effect  analogous  to  that  produced  by 
labializing  the  original  sound. 

It  was  also  evident  that  there  was  a  lingual  element  of  change,  espe- 
cially when  vowels  of  the  "front"  and  "mixed"  series  were  tried;  but  it 
was  extremely  difficult  to  locate  the  resultant  sounds.  The  fixed  pitch 
hypothesis  offers  a  clear  understanding  of  the  nature  of  the  change. 

With  decreasing  speed  of  rotation,  the  prime  tone  and  the  characteristic 
upper  partials  fall  simultaneously  in  pitch.  Upon  our  theory  the  char- 
acteristic partials  correspond  to  the  fundamentals  of  the  cavities  formed 
in  the  mouth  by  assuming  some  position  of  the  vocal  organs.  Hence  we 
might  expect  that  as  the  speed  of  rotation  decreased,  the  sound  produced 
would  correspond  to  a  vowel  having  anterior  and  posterior  cavities  of 
lower  pitch  than  the  original  one. 

The  pitch  of  the  anterior  cavity  can  be  lowered  by  gradually  approxi- 
mating and  rounding  the  lips,  and  the  pitch  of  the  posterior  cavity  can  be 
similarly  changed  by  contracting  the  passage  between  the  two  cavities. 
The  change  of  vowel  quality  produced  by  decreasing  the  speed  of  rotation 
of  the  cylinder  of  the  phonograph  thus  seems  to  correspond  to  the  change 
produced  by  gradually  elevating  the  tongue  in  the  mouth  and  at  the 
same  time  contracting  and  rounding  the  orifice  between  the  lips. 

Effect  of  Increasing  the  Speed  of  Rotation. 

A  vowel  was  sung  into  the  phonograph,  in  a  low-pitched  voice,  while 
the  cylinder  was  turned  very  slowly.  When  the  sound  was  reproduced, 
the  cylinder  was  started  slowly,  and  the  rate  of  rotation  gradually 
increased. 

The  vowel  ah  changed  gradually  to  a  in  ask,  and  then  to  a  (in  the 
word  man).  This  change  of  vowel  effect  was  accompanied  by  a  remark- 
able change  in  the  quality  of  the  reproduced  voice.  The  sound  was 


128 

accompanied  by  a  metallic  twang.  This  disagreeable  quality  beeame 
more  and  more  marked  as  the  speed  of  rotation  was  increased,  until  a  sort 
of  "  Punch  and  Judy"  squeak  was  produced. 

Upon  the  fixed  pitch  hypothesis  this  change  also  becomes  intelligible. 

Organically  considered,  the  change  corresponds  to  a  gradual  contrac- 
tion of  the  posterior  cavity,  accomplished  by  approximation  of  the 
posterior  pillars  of  the  soft  palate  (as  in  Fig.  2),  accompanied  by  a  gliding 
forward  of  the  lingual  position.  This  is  exactly  what  one  would  expect 
upon  the  supposition  that  the  posterior  and  anterior  cavities  were  of 
higher  pitch  than  in  the  original  vowel. 

I  was  surprised  at  first  that  I  could  detect  no  tendency  in  a  (in  aim) 
or  e  (in  men)  to  glide  upwards  towards  ee  (in  see),  for  the  anterior  cavity 
in  ee  is  of  smaller  size  and  higher  pitch  than  in  the  other  vowels  men- 
tioned; but  I  now  see  that  the  elevation  of  the  tongue  would  tend 
to  lower  the  pitch  of  the  posterior  cavity,  which  should  theoretically  be 
raised  simultaneously  with  the  elevation  of  the  pitch  of  the  anterior 
cavity. 

Results  obtained  by  Fleenting  Jcnkin  and  J.  A.  Ewing. 

Jenkin  and  Ewing  have  made  a  minute  analysis  of  the  records 
impressed  upon  the  tinfoil  of  the  phonograph  by  vowel  sounds,  and  have 
published  the  results  of  their  researches  in  the  columns  of  Nature,  and 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Edinburgh  Royal  Society  for  1878. 

Their  analysis  of  the  records  of  the  vowel  6  brought  out  the  fact  that, 
whatever  pitch  of  voice  was  employed,  the  predominant  partial  was  b\, 
as  fixed  by  Helmholtz,  or  within  a  few  notes  of  that  pitch. 

As  the  final  result  of  their  researches,  Jenkin  and  J.  A.  Ewing  say 
(see  Nature,  Vol.  XVIII.,  p.  455):  "We  are  thus  brought  back  to  our 
original  statement,  that  in  distinguishing  vowels  the  ear  is  aided  by  two 
factors — one  depending  on  the  harmony  or  group  of  partials,  and  the 

other  on  the  absolute  pitch  of  the  constituents We  are  forced 

to  the  conclusion,  already  adopted  by  Helmholtz  and  Bonders,  that  the 
ear  recognizes  the  kind  of  cavity  by  which  the  reinforcement  is  pro. 
duced;  that,  although  the  sounds  which  issue  differ  so  much  that  we  fail, 
when  they  are  graphically  represented  and  mathematically  analyzed, 
to  grasp  any  one  prominent  common  feature,  nevetheless,  by  long 
practice,  the  ear  is  able  to  distinguish  between  the  different  sorts  of 
cavities  which  are  formed  in  pronouncing  given  vowels." 

General  Results. 

Of  the  two  hypotheses  with  which  we  started,  it  is  certain  that  one 
(the  harmonic)  is  wrong  and  the  other  only  partly  right.  The  balance  of 
evidence  inclines  largely  towards  the  fixed  pitch  hypothesis,  the  main 
argument  against  it  being  found  in  the  periodic  curves  of  the  phonauto- 
graph. 

The  solution  of  the  difficulty  seems  to  be  that  suggested  by  Ellis, 
namely,  that,  "what  we  call  our  vowels  are  not  individuals,  scarcely 
species,  but  rather  genera,  existing  roughly  in  the  speaker's  intention, 


129 

but  at  present  mainly  artificially  constituted  by  the  habits  of  writing 
and  reading."  (See  "  Early  English  Pronunciation,"  Part  IV.,  p.  1279.) 

I  do  not  doubt  that  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  vowel- 
individual,  if  we  could  examine  it  critically,  would  be  found  to  consist 
in  the  presence  of  partial  tones  of  fixed  pitch  corresponding  to  the 
resonance  cavities  of  some  definite  fixed  position  of  the  vocal  organs. 
A  resonance  cavity,  however,  is  found  to  be  capable  of  reinforcing  not 
only  a  tone  corresponding  to  its  fundamental  or  proper  tone,  but  other 
tones  that  differ  slightly  in  pitch  from  that. 

The  reinforcement  is  greater  or  less  as  the  exciting  tone  is  more  or 
less  removed  in  pitch  from  the  proper  tone  of  the  cavity .  Thus,  when  a 
vowel  is  sung  or  spoken,  those  harmonics  of  the  voice  which  are  nearest 
in  pitch  to  the  proper  tones  of  the  mouth  cavities  would  be  reinforced  at 
the  expense  of  the  proper  tones  themselves.  And  although  the  ear  may 
be  guided  in  its  recognition  of  vowel  quality  by  a  feeling  of  absolute 
pitch,  the  vowels  would  be  recognized  from  the  presence  of  partials  of 
slightly  different  pitch — the  ear  locating,  as  it  were,  the  distance  of  the 
fixed  pitch  by  the  loudness  of  the  reinforced  harmonic. 

In  ordinary  speech  the  voice  is  rarely  on  a  level,  but  is  constantly 
gliding  upwards  or  downwards.  When  a  vowel  is  spoken,  the  pitch 
of  the  voice  is  constantly  changing.  The  reinforced  partials  must  also 
change  in  pitch,  swelling  and  dying  away  in  intensity,  as  they  approach 
or  recede  from  the  proper  pitches  of  the  mouth  cavities.  Thus,  in  the 
rapid  succession  of  reinforced  partial  tones,  accompanying  an  inflection 
of  the  voice,  a  point  of  maximum  resonance  should  be  perceived  having 
the  absolute  pitch  characteristic  of  the  vowel  uttered.1 

Treating  vowels  as  we  find  them,  as  genera  of  sounds,  instead  of 
individuals,  the  most  plausible  theory  seems  to  be  what  we  may  term 
"the  harmonic  fixed  pitch  theory  of  vowel  sounds,"  according  to  which 
a  vowel  is  a  musical  compound,  of  partial  tones,  whose  frequencies  are 
multiples  of  the  fundamental  of  the  voice;  the  predominant  partials 
being  always  those  that  are  nearest  in  pitch  to  the  resonance  cavities 
formed  in  the  mouth  by  the  position  of  the  vocal  organs  assumed  during 
the  utterance  of  the  vowel. 

1  It  is  well  known  that  the  duration  of  a  r    wel  is  an  element  in  determining  its  quality.     It  is 
extremely  difficult  to  detect  the  quality  of  short  vowels,  and  they  are  often  spoken  of  as  "obscure." 


INDEX. 


Abbreviations,  46-50 

Accent  more  important  than  exact 

pronunciation,  15-16,  77-78,  100- 

101,  107 
Articulation,    method   of   teaching, 

II3-HS 

perfect,  unnecessary,  13-16,  loo-ioi, 
107,  in 

b,  defective,  how  to  correct,  84-99 
Back  centre-aperture,  how  to  teach, 

26,  56-57 

voice,  how  to  teach,  56-57 
shut,  voice,   nose,   how   to   teach, 

57-58,  70-71 

Bell's    (Prof.   Alexander   Melville) 
Visible     Speech     symbols     ex- 
plained, 37-50 
vowel  scheme,  103 
Bottles  used  to  illustrate  resonance 

of  air,  25,  27,  121 
Breathing  exercises,  3-4 
mechanism  of,  1-4 

ch,  German,  development  of  26, 56-57 
importance    of    teach- 
ing, 26,  103,  115 
Chest  expansion  exercises,  3-4 
Clicks,  how  to  correct,  85-99 
Combinations,  95-99,  112 
Comfortable,  how  to  teach,  15-16 
Consonant  positions  compared  with 

vowel  positions,  13-16,  100 
Consonants,  84-99 
illustrated  by  charts,  I,  II,  III,  and 

VI,  51,  53,  57,  62-63,  7i 
pronunciation   of,    determines   in- 
telligibility,  13-16,  100,  in 
shut,  defects  of,  84-99 
how  to  teach,  69 
vocal,  how  to  improve,  80 
Constriction  denned,  36 

of  vocal  cords,  11 
Cords,  see  Vocal  cords. 

d,  defective,  how  to  correct,  84-99 


Defective  positions,  how  to  correct, 
see  individual  letters;  e.  g.,  de- 
fective r,  see  r. 

Development,  see  individual  let- 
ters; e.  g.,  for  development  of 
ng,  see  ng. 

Diaphragm,  action  of  in  breathing, 

1-3 

Diphthongs,  defective,  how  to  cor- 
rect, 109-110 

Discouragement,  avoid,  19,  50,  75- 

76,  94-97 
Divided  aperture,  explain,  75 

ee,  defective,  how  to  correct,  103 

how  to  teach,  56-57,  71-72,  80 
Epiglottis,  functions  of,  32-34 
Exercises  for  chest  expansion,  3-4 

Failures,  explain,  76,  94-97 

False  vocal  cords,  see  Vocal  cords. 

Front  centre-aperture,  how  to  teach, 

56-57,  71-72 
voice,  how  to  teach,  56-57» 

71-72 

g,  defective,  how  to  correct,  84-99 
Glides,  108-109 

h,  how  to  teach,  56-57,  71-72,  73-74 
Helmholz,      synthesis      of     vowel 

sounds,  31,  117-118 
Hewson,  Dr.  A.,  discussion  of  first 

lecture,  10-11 

Intelligibility  depends  on  pronunci- 
ation of  consonants,  13-16,  100, 
in 
more    important   than   perfection. 

13-16 

k,  defective,  how  to  correct,  84-99 
Kiss,  action  of  vocal  organs  in  pro- 
ducing, 85-88 

1,  how  to  teach,  59,  62,  70-71,  78-80 
Larynx,  are  vowel  sounds  formed 

in?  7-S,  9-1 i,  121-122 
functions  of,  5-11 
substitute  for,  8-9,  121-122 
131 


'32 


INDEX. 


Lip  centse-aperture,  back  centre- 
aperture,  how  to  teach,  59,  62, 
70-71 

Lip    centre-aperture,  how  to  teach, 

55,  57 

voice,  how  to  teach,  56-57 
positions,  why  begin  with?  75 
shut,   voice,   nose,   how  to   teach, 

56-58,  69,  71 

Loudness  of  voice,  how  determined, 
17-19 

m,  defective,  how  to  correct,  84-99 
how  to  teach,  44-45,  47,  49,  56-58, 
69,  71 

McKendrick,  Dr.,  excision  of  pa- 
tient's larynx,  8-9 

Metallic  quality  of  voice,  how  to 
correct,  19-22 

Mirror,  importance  of  using,  102 

Mixed  symbols,  47-48,  59,  75 

Moore,  Dr.  E.  M.,  larynx  experi- 
ment, 7-8,  122 

tracheotomy  operation,  9-11,  121- 
122 

Mouth,  relation  to  speech,  24-31, 
119-121 

Muscular  feeling,  75 

n,  defective,  how  to  correct,  84-99 
how  to  teach,  44-45,  47,  49,  57-58, 

70-71 

Nasal  quality  of  voice,  how  to  cor- 
rect, 21-23 

ng,  defective,  how  to  correct,  84-99 
how  to  teach,  11-12,  44-45,  47,  57- 

58,  70-71 

'No-no"  method,  avoid,  19,  50,  75- 
76,  94-97 

oo,  defective,  how  to  correct,  26-27 
position  for,  36-38,  49 

p,  defective,  how  to  correct,  84-99 
Palate,  soft,  functions  of,  32-34 

how    to    raise,    21-23, 

82-83 
Pharynx,    relation   to    speech,    17- 

24,  31 

Phonautograph,  experiments  with, 
123-124 


Phonograph,      experiments      with, 

125-128 
Pitch    of    voice,    how    determined, 

17-19 
how  to  study,  119-123 

vary,  6,  25,  27-30 
Point  centre-aperture,  how  to  teach, 

55,  57,  71-72 
voice,  how  to  teach,  56-57, 

71-72 
divided   aperture,    voice,    how   to 

teach,  59,  62,  70-71 
shut,  symbol  for,  46,  69,  71 

voice,   nose,   how   to   teach, 

57-58,  70-71 
Porter,    Prof.    Samuel,    letter    on 

functions  of  the  pharynx,  31 
Pronunciation,  perfect,  unnecessary, 
13-16,  loo-ioi,  107,  in 

Quality  of  voice,  how  determined, 
9,  17-19 

r,  defective,  how  to  correct,  108-109 
how  to  teach,  11-12,  55,  56,  57,  71- 

72,  78-80 
glide,   may   be    ignored,    16,    108, 

115-116 
Reed  as  substitute  for  vocal  cords, 

8-9,  17 

Resonance  illustrated,  25,  27-30 
Rhythm  more  important  than  exact 

pronunciation,   15-16 

Shoot,  learning  to,  like  learning  to 

speak,  76 
Shut    consonants,    see    Consonants, 

shut. 

Soft  palate,  see  Palate,  soft. 
Speech  after  excision  of  larynx,  8- 

9 
tracheotomy,  9-1 1, 121- 

122 

mechanism  of,  methods  of  study- 
ing, 34-50 
reading,  113-115 
relation  of  mouth  to,  24-31,  no- 

121 

pharynx  to,   17-24,    ?T 
breathing  to,  2-3,  35 


INDEX. 


133 


Swing,    child's,    illustrates    sympa- 
thetic vibration,  28-29 
Sympathetic  vibration,  27-29 

t,  defective,  how  to  correct,  84-99 

position  for,  46,  69,  71 
Teaching  articulation,    method    of, 

II3-H5 
Visible    Speech,    method 

of,  51-83 

Thorax,  functions  of,  1-4 
Throat  symbols,  how  to  teach,  60-63 
tn,  how  to  teach,  81-83 
Tongue,  how  to  manipulate,  11-12, 

102-103 
Tracheotomy,    speech    after,    9-11, 

I2I-I22 

Visible  Speech,  method  of  teaching, 

51-83 
symbols    explained, 

37-50 
Vocal  consonants,  how  to  improve, 

80 
cords,  action  of,  5-6,  9 

constriction  of,  H,  16 
substitute  for,  8-9 
Voice,  harsh,  how  to  correct,  19-23 
mechanism  of,  6 
metallic,  how  to  correct,  19-22 


Voice,  nasal,  how  to  correct,  21-23 
quality  of,  how  determined,  9,  17- 

19 
Vowel  positions,     compared     with 

consonant,  13-16,  100 
perfect,    unnecessary,    13- 

16,  loo-ioi,  107,  in 
sounds  after  excision   of   larynx, 

8-9 
are  they  formed  in  larynx? 

7-S,  9-1 1,  121-122 
synthesis  of,  31 
theories,  24-31,  117-129 
Vowels,  defective,  100-112 
illustrated  by  charts  IV,  V,  and 

VII,  51,  63-64,  68,  74 
primary,  65-69 
wide,  66-69 

w,  how  to  teach,  56-57,  70-71,  80 
wh,  how  to  teach,  59,  62,  70-71 
w  and  wh,  defective,  how  to  cor- 
rect, 26-27 

Whisper,  vocal  chords  in,  16 
Whistling,  mechanism  of,  122 
Word  method  of  teaching,  113-115 

y,  how  to  teach,  80,  108 
Yale,    Miss    Caroline   A.,    supports 
Dr.  Bell's  theory,  116 


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